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DOMESTIC BOTAI^T. 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



AN EXPOSITION 



STEUCTUEE AND CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS 



AND OF THEIR USES FOR FOOD, CLOTHING, MEDICINE, 
AND MANUFACTURING PURPOSES. 



BY 



JOHN SMITH, A.L.S. 

EX-CUHATOR OF THE ROYAL BOTAKIC GARDENS, KEW. 




LONDON: 

L. KEEVE kV^ CO., 5, EENE[KTTA STREET, COYENT GAEDEN. 

1871. 



"Behold, I have given yon every herb bearing seed, which is upon 
the face of all the earth, and every tree, in the which is the fruit of 
a tree yielding seed ; to you it shall be for meat." — Genesis i. 29. 



PEEFACE. 



MY long official connexion with the Royal Botanic Gar- 
dens at Kew has given me the opportunity of becoming 
acquainted with the views entertained by amateur plant- 
growers and lovers of flowers regarding the study of Botany. 

Many have said they would like to obtain a knowledge of 
the Structure and Classification of Plants, and with that view 
have purchased books on the subject ; but they so abounded 
with technical terms and long names difficult to pronounce 
that they made no progress in the study, and therefore con- 
tented themselves with admiring their favourite plants and 
flowers as pretty objects. Many say they would more readily 
be induced to learn Botany if all plants had English names ; 
but when it is understood that there are 100,000 kinds of 
plants now known, the impossibility of giving English names 
to such a host must be obvious. Scientific words are conse- 
quently used, and it should be borne in mind that it is as 
impossible to study Botany or any other science without 
learning the meaning of the principal technical terms used, as 
it is to speak or read a language without a knowledge of 
itL, alphabet and grammar. By a little study, scientific terms 
and names of plants soon become familiar. For instance, 
the names Geranium^ Pelargonium, Hydrangea, Calceolaria, 
Chrysanthemum, Amaranthus, Rhododendron, are now spoken 



vi 



PREFACE. 



as freely as if they were original words of our mother- 
tongue ; and there is no reason why the two important 
botanical words, Cryptogamia and Fhcenogamia^ should not 
be equally familiar and as well understood. Many other 
examples may be given of Greek words being in common 
use — such as Telegraph, Geography, Thermometer, Baro- 
meter, Microscope, Polytechnic, Panorama — and it would 
require very little practice to call Kew Gardens Phytological 
Gardens as readily as we speak of the Zoological Gardens* in 
the Regent's Park. Many say they wish they could reside at 
Kew for a time, in order to have the opportunity of study- 
ing Botany by the examination of the extensive collection of 
exotics in the Botanic Gardens ; this is not, however, neces- 
sary, as every garden, field, park, common, road, and river- 
side affords ample materials for studying Botany. With a view 
of assisting to remove some of the fancied difficulties, and 
to render the knowledge of Botany familiar and interesting 
to those who wish to become acquainted with its principles, 
without requiring to be taught professionally, I have drawn 
up an introductory treatise, forming the first part of this 
work. Although this may be viewed as only a new version 
of preceding treatises, it nevertheless has this merit, that 
most of its points have been verified by my own observations. 
In order to assist in popularizing and showing the practical use 
of Botany, I have in the second part given a systematic 
arrangement of the families of plants, briefly describing the 
principal points of their characters, properties, products, and 
uses. With regard to the compilation of the economical part, 
I deem it necessary to state that having early taken an inte- 
rest in the uses of plants, and assisted in bringing together 



* Phyton being the Greek for plant, and zoon for animal. 



PREFACE. 



Vli 



the great collection of vegetable products contained in the 
Museum at Kew,* I have, from these and other sources, 
obtained a considerable knowledge of the subject generally 
known as Economic Botany. 

The merit of being the first to collate and systematically 
arrange this branch of the science is due to the late Dr. 
Lindley, who, in his great work, " The Vegetable Kingdom," 
has given a brief account of the principal products and uses 
of plants under their respective families. This leads me to 
notice the labours on the same subject of my late son, Alex- 
ander Smith, who became connected with the Museum on its 
first establishment, and ultimately curator. He early con- 
ceived the idea of writing a general work on Economic and 
Commercial Botany, and for that purpose had, at the time of 
his death in 1865, made an extensive collection of notes, 
manuscripts for two volumes being then nearly ready for the 
press. I have been unable to carry out his intentions further 
than to select matter for the present volume. It is, however, 
proper to state that, in order to reduce it to a moderate size, 
it was found necessary to condense as much as possible. In 
the economic part this has been effected by omitting the 
notice of species and products of local interest only in foreign 
countries. This reduction must be accepted as an apology 
for many brief notices and occasionally abrupt paragraphs ; 
to which must be added, that on account of my recent loss of 
sight, the whole has been written and arranged from my 
dictation. Although thus curtailed, I trust, nevertheless, 
that it will be found to contain sufficient information to make 
it interesting and instructive to those for whom it is written. 
It is, however, much to be desired that a general and com- 



* See page 11. 



viii 



PREFACE. 



plete work on this subject should be early forthcoming, in fur- 
therance of which it would be well that it met with the same 
liberal patronage as that given to a work completed last year 
under the auspices of the Council of Education at South 
Kensington, for teaching systematic and structural botany 
only. This great work consists of coloured diagrams, drawn 
on large sheets of paper, illustrating the characters of about 
130 families of plants, each accompanied by a dried specimen 
of a species typical of the family, with a brief notice of the 
characters and properties of each. Each sheet, with its 
specimen, is fixed in a frame for suspension as a picture, 
seventy of which form a set. One hundred of these sets 
have been thus prepared. 

In order to enable learners to become readily acquainted 
with the principal organs of plants, I have given a few wood- 
cuts showing the typical forms of flowers and their parts, as 
also 16 plates by Mr. W. Fitch, exhibiting the natural forms 
of species characteristic of the classes, not as they grow inter- 
mixed in nature, but as scientifically arranged in botanic 
gardens, by which the eye readily becomes familiar with the 
aspect of families. 

It only remains for me to return thanks to Dr. Hooker for 
loan of books, to Professor Oliver for special botanic infor- 
mation, and to Eobert Heward, F.L.S., and Mr. Jackson, 
curator of the Kew Museum, for correction of the proof- 
sheets. 

John Smith. 



Kew, March, 1871. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGB 

Introduction 1 

PART I. 

Explanation of the parts, structure, life, organism, and 

classification of plants 13 

1. Organs of growth 15 

2. Organs of reproduction 33 

3. Anatomical structure and vitality 61 

4. Classification 71 

Conspectus of the Linnasan System 77 

Conspectus of the Natural System .85 

PART II. 

The Families of Plants, systematically arranged, with a 

description of their characters, properties, uses, &c. 92 
Division I. Cryptogams. — ^Flowerless plants .... 92 
Class I. Thallogens. — Seaweeds, Lichens, and Fungi 92 

Class II. Acrogens. — Ferns, Mosses, &c 107 

Division II. Phaenogams. — Flowering plants . . . .117 
Class III. Endogens. Leaves with free longitudinal 

veins. — Grasses, Palms, Lilies, &c. . .118 

Sect. I. Ovary superior 119 

Sect. II. Ovary inferior 166 

Class IV. Gymnosperms. Leaves with free veins, 

seeds a naked ovule 186 

Sub-class I. The Cycas Family 187 

Sub-class II. The Fir and Yew Families . . . .190 



X 



CONTENTS. 



PAOB 

Class V. Rhizogons.— Tlie Vine Rape Family . . 206 
Class YI. — Exogens. Leaves with netted veins. — 



Trees, Shrubs, and Herbs (those with 

free veins excepted) 210 

Div. I. Achlamyds. — Flowers without calyx and 

corolla 211 

Div. II. Monochlamyds. — Flowers with calyx only 223 
Div. III. Dichlamyds. — Flowers with the calyx and 

corolla 271 

Sect. I. Corolla Monopetalous, inferior . . . 272 
Corolla generally oblique and bila- 
biate with didynamous stamens . 272 
Corolla straight, 4 or 5 toothed, lobed 

or cleft, with generally 5 stamens 289 
Corolla regular ; stamens 2, 4, 8, 16, 

or 5-10 312 

Corolla monopetalous, superior . . 328 

Sect. II. Corolla Polypetalous 355 

Ovary inferior 355^ 

Ovary superior 396 

Stamens perigynous, Calyx and Co- 
rolla separate 396 

Stamens perigynous, Corolla seated 

on the Calyx* 404 

Stamens hypogynous, Calyx and 
Corolla separate 442 



Additions and Corrections 528 

Index to Botanical terms 529 

„ Families and uses 531 



* These characters are accidentally omitted before 
Apple and Pea Alliance, page 404. 



DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 



PLATE 1, p. 96. 

A. Algse. 

1. Alaria esculenta 

2. Delesseria sanguinea 

3. Ulva porphjracea 

4. Padina pavonia. 

B. Lichens. 

1. Lecanora tartarea 

2. Usnea Tajlori 

3. Roccella fuciformis. 

C. Fungi. 

1 . Amanita muscaria 

2. Eistulina hepatica 

3. Lycoperdon coelatum 

4. Geaater fimbriatus 

5. Peziza coccinea, 

PLATE 2, p. 107. 

a. Polytrichum commune 

b. Splachnum ampuUaceum 

c. Hypnum pulchellum 

d. Marchantia polymorpha 

e. Jungermannia minuta 
/. Equisetum palustre 
ff. Lycopodium clavatum 
h. Marsilea macropus. 



PLATE 3, p. 112. 

a. Hemitelia speciosa 

b. Cyathea sinuata 

c. Asplenium australasicum 

d. Trichomanes reniforme 

e. Gleichenia flabellatum 
/! Platecerium grande. 

PLATE 4, p. 119. 

a. Saccharum officinarum 

b. Zea Mays 

c. Papyrus anti quorum 

d. Gynerium argenteum 

e. Dactylis csespitosa. 

PLATE 5, p. 134. 

a. Allocasia macrorhiza 

b. Monstera deliciosa 

c. Dracontium asperum 

d. Anthurium scherzerianum 

e. Amorphophallus campanulati 

PLATE 6, p. 140. 

a. Iriartea ventricosa 

b. Phytelephas macrocarpa 

c. Hyphsene Thebaica 

d. Borassus flabelliformia 

e. Malortiea simplex. 



Xll 



DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 



PLATE 7, p. 174. 

a. Heliconia metallica 

b. Strelitzia augusta 

c. Musa sapientum 

d. Calathea tubispatha 

e. Calathea Veitchiana. 

PLATE 8, p. 161. 

a. Dracaena Draco 

b. Agave Americana 

c. Xanthorrhoea hastilis 

d. Doryanthes excelsa 

e. Fourcroya gigantea. 

PLATE 9, p. 207. 

a. Rafflesia Arnoldi 

b. Rafflesia Pat ma 

c. Balanophora involucrata 

d. Hydnora longicoliis 

e. Cytinus hypocistis. 

PLATE 10, p. 188. 

a. Encephalartos Caffer 

b. Dion edule 

c. Stangeria paradoxa 

d. Zamia furfuracea 

e. Bowenia spectabilis. 

PLATE 11, p. 192. 

a. Dammara orientalis 

b. Salisburia adiantilolia 

c. Wellingtonia gigantea 

d. Sciadopitys verticillata 
€. Araucaria imbricata. 



PLATE 12, Frontispiece. 

a. Nepenthes Edwardiana 

b. Sarracenia Drummondi 

c. Cephalotus follicularis 

d. Darlingtonia Californica 

e. Nepenthes Lowi. 

PLATE 13, p. 388. 

a. Cereus giganteus 

b. Opuntia cochinellifera 

c. Echinocactus oxygonus 

d. Cereus grandiflorus 

e. Cereus speciosissimus 

f. Cereus cserulescens 

g. Melocactus communis. 

PLATE 14, p. 403. 

a. b. c. Adansonia Gregori 

d. Carica Papaya 

e. Pious species 

f. Vitis macropus 

g. Pachypodium Lealii 

h. Delabechia rupestris 

i. Sesamothamnus Benguelliensis- 

PLATE 15, p. 280. 

a. Digitalis purpurea 

b. Helianthus annuus 

c. Althaea rosea 

d. Papaver somniferum 

e. Nicotiana Tabacum. 

PLATE 16, p. 164. 

a. Testudinaria elephantipes 

b. Lapageria rosea 

c. Philesiabuxifolia 

d. Paris polyphyllu. 



INTRODUCTION. 



THE matters of which the earth is composed, with the 
objects on its surface and in its waters, are for gene- 
ral purposes classified under three heads or kingdoms — 
viz., Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal. The first com- 
prehends metals, stones, and all substances devoid of 
organic structure, without the power of extension or 
motion, being, if left untouched, the same to-day and for 
ever. The second consists of plants, which possess an 
organized structure, endowed with the vital power of ex- 
tension and reproduction, but devoid of locomotion or 
apparent sense of feeling pleasure or pain. The third 
embraces all creatures endowed with life, and a greater 
or less degree of perception, possessing the power of re- 
production and locomotion, with the sense of feeling 
pleasure and pain. The two latter successively reproduce 
their like, each generation ultimately decaying. Such is 
the law of nature. Creative power has been profuse in 
placing on the earth numerous kinds of plants and ani- 
mals, furnishing them with organisms suited to their 
respective habits, all beautiful to behold ; but they are 
often suddenly overtaken by convulsions of the earth, 
the lofty forest tree and humble herb being overthrown 
and buried beneath its surface, or hidden under its waters* 

B 



2 



INTRODUCTION. 



That one or more such catastrophes, either universal or 
local, have occurred at long unknown intervals of time, 
is evident from the numerous fossil remains and imprints 
of plants and animals found preserved in various condi- 
tions under or on the surface of the earth, such being of 
remarkable forms and quite distinct from any now living. 

It is the purpose of this work, however, to speak only 
of the plants now living on the earth. 

In the Bible we find about one hundred different kinds 
recorded, with the uses of many of them specified, which 
with other evidence has enabled us to identify about one- 
half with plants of the present day, while others remain 
doubtful. 

For many centuries after the close of Bible history the 
area of the earth known to the civihzed nations of 
Europe, did not extend beyond the countries of Western 
Asia, Egypt, and the regions around the Mediter- 
ranean Sea. But since the end of the fourteenth 
century of the Christian era the middle and eastern 
countries of Asia, Southern Africa, the continent of 
America^ and the numerous islands of the ocean have 
been discovered, and thousands of new plants become 
known. Almost every different country or region, often 
of limited area, possesses kinds peculiar to itself ; never- 
theless, some Europ'^an plants are found common to 
many distant and widely separated countries. 

Much has of late years been written on the geographical 
distribution of plants and their " aspects in nature," upon 
which, although of the highest interest in their study, 
our space only admits of a few brief observations. With 
the exception of the Polar regions, the snow and ice 
capped mountains, and the moving Sahara, the earth, 
*' and the waters under the earth," abound with plants. 



INTRODUCTION. 



3 



The grass of the field on which animal life directly or 
indirectly depends, occupies the greatest area, and may 
be called the carpet of the earth. Vast plains, known in 
different countries by the names of steppes, savannas, and 
llanos, are covered with fern, heath, and scrub plantfs, 
often indicating sterility, but sometimes the contrary, as 
in the grassy pampas and prairies of America. In 
northern latitudes large areas are occupied with mosses 
and lichens, and in temperate and warm zones immense 
forests form the grand aspects of nature on mountains 
and plains. Plants also extend their domain by certain 
kinds growing on others, of which the numerous species 
of tropical Orchid, Arum, and Pine Apple families, as 
well as the more humble race of Lichens and Mosses 
that clothe the forests, are examples ; but these only ad- 
here. Another class are what are termed parasites, the 
Mistletoe being the only special example in this country, 
though its allies are numerous in tropical countries. Both 
fresh water and the sea abound in flowerless plants called 
Algse, generally known as sea-weeds, which in some 
places form extensive ocean forests, floating on the sur- 
face in such density as to impede, and in some cases pre- 
vent the navigation of ships. The last to be noticed are 
the Fungi, which grow upon and ultimately reduce all 
dead vegetable substances to their original element, and 
even prey on the living. Having said thus much of the 
dispersion of plants over the earth, we have next to con- 
sider their most important and necessary use to man as 
food. 

During the first two thousand years of Bible history 
there is no information of what were the food plants of 
man until the time of Noah, who " planted a vineyard" 
and made wine ; but it is to be inferred that some kind 

B 2 



4 



INTRODUCTION. 



of pulse or corn was cultivated in the time of Abraham, 
as " fine meal," bread," and " cakes" are then spoken 
of, and in the time of Jacob, " lentils." Corn and wheat 
are also mentioned, thus showing that these plants were 
then grown in the land of Canaan ; and history proves 
that at that period Egypt was a corn-growing country. 
From that time to the present day, corn and pulse have 
been the staflP of life to a great portion of mankind. 
The staple food, however, varies much according to the 
different climates and the hereditary customs of the 
numerous races of man. In most tropical climates rice, 
sago, cocoa-nut, banana, tara, quinoa, maize, and in 
temperate latitudes corn, that is, wheat, oats, barley, and 
rye are the principal food plants ; the potato with other 
succulent roots and numerous fruits being auxiliaries ; 
while the reindeer and Iceland moss, bark, nuts of 
various kinds, bulbous roots, and fungi form a great part 
of the food of more northern nations. The plants yield- 
iug tea, coffee, sugar, wine, tobacco, and betel nut, have 
become special objects of man's care, not as being neces- 
sary to his existence, but in order to satisfy artificial or 
acquired tastes, being generally what are called luxuries, 
which, from habitual use, have become indispensable 
to his comfort. It is to be observed that some of the 
most useful plants are in their natural state highly 
poisonous, but are rendered wholesome by art. It is, 
however, to be deplored that by distillation the sugar- 
yielding plants have become the demoralizing agents of 
the human race. 

The forethought of civilized nations is mainly directed 
to the production of a constant supply of food, by sowing 
and reaping according to the nature of their climate and 
the plants they use. The elements, however, pay no respect 



INTRODUCTION. 



5 



to the works of man, and it often happens that too little 
or too much rain, or other influences, as mildews and 
insects, prove injurious to the life of plants and prevent 
them from coming to maturity, thus causing famine and 
death to whole districts, as instanced in India in 1866, 
when thousands of people perished for want of food. Even 
Great Britain and Ireland, with their highly cultivated 
fields, are not able to produce sufficient food for the 
29,000,000 of inhabitants ; a few more rainy days during 
the harvest of 1866 would have caused a famine. 

Tilling, sowing, and reaping, however, are unknown to 
many races of men, even in the most favourable climates. 
For instance. New Holland, abounding as it does in 
forest and grass lands, possesses no native corn, fruit, 
or roots of sufficient succulency or abundance to form 
a staple of food for a large population. Hence the 
wandering habits of the natives, whose vegetable sus- 
tenance chiefly depends on fern-root^ nardoo, Araucaria 
nuts, and the like. 

Next in importance to food is protection from the 
vicissitudes of heat and cold. In the broad central zone 
of the earth where the temperature is such that man re- 
quires no artificial protection, except for the hereditary 
virtue of decency, many races, like our first parents, only 
sew leaves together, or make use of pieces of bark in the 
most primitive form, as may be seen from many speci- 
mens in the museum at Kew. But in the earliest times 
of civilization we find that flax was grown in Egypt. 
Cotton also appears to have been early known, and it is 
singular that these two substances still continue to 
supply the materials for the chief articles of clothing. 
It is not only to insure a regular supply of food and 
clothing that man is stimulated to till the ground, but 



INTRODUCTION. 



also for the purpose of satisfying the numerous artificial 
■wants which he has created, and which may simply be 
called ornament, that is, for pleasing the eye in the 
matter of dress and furniture, or in other ways to add to 
his comfort or pleasure. To obtain these constitutes a 
great part of the industry and commerce of the world. 
Perhaps no plants now conduce more to the progress 
and civilization of mankind than those yielding gutta- 
percha and hemp, the former furnishing one of the most 
important materials for submarine telegraphs, and the 
latter ropes and sails for ships. Man also finds in plants 
remedies for his numerous ailments, the most important 
being opium and quinine, the former mitigating the 
ravages of cholera, and the latter those of fever. 

The foregoing shows the importance of plants for the 
continuation of animal life on the earth, and it is with 
no surprise that we find them to have been the study of 
man in all ages. King Solomon " spake of trees, from 
the cedar that is in Lebanon to the hyssop that springeth 
out of the wall by which it is reasonable to infer that 
he had all plants that came under his observation cata- 
logued and classified, and must therefore be considered 
the first systematic botanist. Horticulture also appears 
to have been practised in his day, as we read " I made 
me great works ; I builded me houses, I planted me 
vineyards; I made me gardens and orchards, and I 
planted trees in them of all kinds of fruit ; I made me 
pools of water, to water therewith the wood [nursery] 
that bringeth forth trees."* Although these words have 
only a figurative application, they show that gardening 
was practised nearly three thousand years ago. 



* Ecc'lesiastes, chap. ii. vers. 4, 5, 6. 



INTRODUCTION. 



7 



As might be expected, it was soon discovered tbat two 
or more plants had characters and virtues in common, 
which led to their being classed in accordance with their 
relative appearance to each other ; thus came grass, herbs, 
and trees. The increasing knowledge of man in time led 
to more defined systems of classification, and the first 
book extant specially treating of plants is that of Theo- 
phrastus, written three hundred and twenty-four years 
before the Christian era. In that work about seven hun- 
dred plants are described, of which about one-half have 
been identified by modern botanists as natives chiefly of 
Greece, the descriptions of the other half being too vague 
to admit of their identification. He was followed by 
others, now called ancient writers, to describe whose 
works would form a volume of itself. The classification 
of these writers was in most cases by dividing the plants 
into families, according to their likeness to each other, 
places of growth, or virtues. This system was followed 
by early writers in this country, such as Turner and 
Gerard in their herbals — the first published in 1551, and 
the latter, a thick folio volume, in 1597 — in which the 
descriptions and medical virtues of plants for the cure of 
all complaints are quaintly set forth. At that period 
those who collected and cultivated herbs were called 
herbalists, and as they were acquainted with their virtues 
were looked upon as sages in the healing art. 

In the course of time, a knowledge of plants became a 
necessary part in the education of medical students, and 
on the establishment of colleges and universities, profes- 
sors were appointed, whose successive teaching and writings 
led to the closer study of plants till it became a special 
science known as botany. It was not, however, until the 
beginning of the last century that botany began to assume 



8 



INTRODUCTION. 



a scientific character, and in this country, John Eay 
(1703) may he considered the leader. He was followed 
by Carol Linnaeus, a Swedish professor of botany, who 
in 1731 published his celebrated sexual system of plants, 
and as his method was simple and easy it soon became 
popular and fashionable, doing much for the advance- 
ment of botanical science. Although in some degree 
now superseded by what is called the Jussieuan or 
natural system,* yet the latter cannot be well under- 
stood, or botany learned even by the most scientific, 
without well studying the elements on which the 
Linnaean system is founded. 

According to Linnaeus, all plants are capable of being 
arranged under twenty-four classes. He was also famed 
for being the inventor of the trivial or specific name. 
Before his time names of plants contained their descrip- 
tions, often consisting of many words ; this Linnaeus 
simplified by giving every plant a name equivalent to the 
Christian name and surname in a family — the Christian 
name answering for the species, and the surname for the 
genus, but reversed in. botany; for example, red gera- 
nium is Geranium ruhrum. This method is now adopted 
by all scientific botanists. During the last sixty years 
all the principal works on scientific botany have been 
based on the natural system ; and to understand the 
principles on which it is founded, a knowledge of names, 
structures, forms, and functions of the different organs 
of plants is requisite. 

I may here notice the origin and important influence 
which the successive introduction and cultivation of 
foreign plants known as exotics, has exercised in pro- 



See Classification. 



INTRODUCTION. 



9 



moting the study of Botany, instances of which are re- 
corded in books of the sixteenth century. In early times, 
as now, collections of plants were formed by amateurs for 
pleasure and recreation, or for scientific study ; the latter 
leading to the publication of many botanical works. In 
time physic gardens were established — that of Oxford and 
the Apothecaries' Garden at Chelsea being the earliest ; 
from the latter of which issued the botanical and horti- 
cultural works of Philip Miller. In 1690 Hampton 
Court Gardens were patronized as a botanic garden by- 
William III. and Queen Mary, and placed by them 
under the directorship of the botanist Plukenet. 
Plukenet sent collectors to distant countries, from whom 
numerous exotic plants and specimens were received, 
which furnished him with the materials for his large 
works on botany. The next important physic garden 
(botanic) was established at Kew, in 1760, by the 
Princess of Wales (mother of George IIL)j assisted by 
Lord Bute, and placed under the direction of William 
Alton, who had studied the Linnaean system and the 
cultivation of plants under the celebrated Philip Miller 
(superintendent of the Chelsea Garden). It originally- 
consisted of nine acres, walled in, the Temple of the Sun 
(still standing) being then about the centre of the 
garden. Lord Bute was also a great patron and student 
of botany, on which he wrote an expensive work in nine 
quarto volumes, only twelve copies of it being printed. 
At the same period. Dr. (afterwards Sir John) Hill took 
great interest in the garden, being also a voluminous 
writer on botany. In 1768 he published a catalogue of 
the plants of Kew, under the title of " Hortus Kewensis," 
in which he enumerates three thousand four hundred 
plants. But the scientific reputation of the garden is 



10 



INTRODUCTION. 



due to Mr. Alton, under whose superintendence the col- 
lection of rare plants became celebrated. In 1789 it 
contained five thousand five hundred species, as recorded 
in his edition of " Hortus Kewensis," published in three 
volumes^ under the patronage of George III. This 
monarch, -with the assistance of Sir Joseph Banks, 
gave great facilities for the introduction of exotic plants, 
and botanical collectors were sent to various countries, 
as also to accompany surveying expeditions, by which 
means a large number of new plants were intro- 
duced, and Kew obtained European celebrity for its 
collections. 

In J 8 1 3, a second edition of " Hortus Kewensis," in five 
volumes, appeared, edited by Mr. W. T. Aiton (son of the 
preceding), when the collection is enumerated as having 
increased to 9800 species, but on account of many being 
tropical annuals of a weedy nature, and from want of 
good accommodation, there was never at any one time 
that number in the garden. Since that period great 
additions have been made by special collectors and 
travellers, but no general catalogue has been published. 
From various lists, however, about 13,000 have been 
noted as contained in the garden, the greatest number 
at any one time being about 11,000. The Kew collec- 
tion may be fairly said to represent the principal families 
of the vegetable kingdom, and aff'ords ample materials for 
the study of botany. 

Besides collections of living plants, the preservation of 
which is not always practicable or convenient, collections 
of dead ones are also formed, by drying and pressing 
specimens of plants between sheets of soft absorbing 
paper, and then fixing them on sheets of white paper, on 
which is written the name of the plant, its native country, 



INTRODUCTION. 



11 



&c., the whole being systematically arranged for ready 
reference. Formerly such collections were called a 
" Hortus siccus," or dry garden, now " Herbarium." 
Part of the natural history collection of Sir Hans 
Sloane which laid the foundation of the British 
Museum, consisted of a Hortus siccus, to which have 
been successively added the collections made during 
the voyages of Captain Cook and subsequent ex- 
plorers, as well as that left by the will of the late Sir 
Joseph Banks. 

Second in importance to the British Museum collec- 
tion, if not first in regard to number of species, is that 
of tl)e late Sir William Hooker, which has by purchase 
lately become the property of the nation. It occupies 
the whole of the house formerly the residence of the late 
King of Hanover at Kew. Both these collections are 
free to the public, that is, to botanists or persons wishing 
to examine specimens for a special purpose. In con- 
nexion with these two herbariums, museums for ex- 
hibiting the products of plants have also been formed, 
those at Kew having been established in 1847, by the 
late Sir William Hooker, through whose indefatigable 
zeal, assisted latterly by Dr. Hooker (now director), a 
most extraordinary collection has been brought together, 
occupying three large buildings; the whole of the 
specimens are arranged in their respective families, also 
named and described, and in many cases their uses 
illustrated by articles of manufacture. These, with the 
herbarium, libraries, and living plants form a phyto- 
logical collection worthy of the nation, which, with the 
garden and museum collections of Oxford, Cambridge, 
Edinburgh, and Dublin, as also the herbarium of the 
Linneean Society in London, furnish materials for the 



12 



INTRODUCTION. 



history of the plants of all countries.* The Linnsean 
Society is also famed for possessing the herbarium of 
Linnaeus, which was purchased of his heirs by the late 
eminent botanist Sir James Edward Smith, and after 
his death by the Linnsean Society, in 1829, for 3000Z' 
This collection consists of 13,000 sheets, of which many 
are unnamed ; allowing for duplicates, the number of 
species may be estimated at about 10,000. These col- 
lections, as a whole, afford ample scope for scientific 
botanists, as well as amateurs, to obtain a knowledge of 
plants, and of their uses in domestic economy and com- 
merce. The formation of the above specially noticed col- 
lections is due to the united labours of plant collectors, 
but attended with considerable expense, risk, and even 
loss of life. Of fifty public, private, and special plant 
collectors employed during the present century, about 
twenty-five became victims, chiefly to the effects of 
climate, to accidents, and to violence from the hands of 
savages. 

What is now stated relates to this country only, for it 
must be understood that botany is also highly patronized 
by the principal governments of Europe, as well as by 
the United States of North America. 

The foregoing briefly explains the nature and im- 
portance of plants, and the interest man has in studying 
their properties and classification. The principles on 
which the latter is founded are explained in the first part 
of this work ; their properties and uses are described in 
the second part. 



* See Appendix. 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



PAET I. 



EXPLAN"ATION OF THE PAETS, STRUCTURE, LIFE, 
ORGANISM, AND CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. 

THE different forms composing the vegetable kingdom 
were first brought to the notice of man under three 
heads^ — viz., Trees, Herbs, and Grass,^ which as a whole 
were called Plants. This word, in its modern applica- 
tion, comprehends all vegetable organisms growing on 
the earth, from microscopic mildew to the largest of 
trees ; about one hundred thousand different forms are 
known, each bearing seed after its kind. To name, de- 
scribe, and classify this vast host, known as the vegetable 
kingdom, constitutes the science called Po^ani/ ;t for the 
study of which a special language has gradually been 
formed, consisting of 3500]: technical words, denoting 
the different nature, form, and structure of the various 
parts of plants, visible and microscopic. But as the 
purpose of this work is to endeavour to teach botany to 
those not conversant with Greek and Latin, I deem it 
unnecessary to use more than about 200 of these techni- 

* Genesis, chap. i. 
•f From a Greek word, Botane, grass, or herbs. 
;|; Lindley's " Glossary of Botanical Terms." 



14 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



cal words, which are explained in the following pages. 
It must be understood that the subject is to be studied 
upon the evidence of plants, native or exotic, growing 
in this country, which to common observation may be 
classed — 1. As tj^ees, that is, hard-wooded plants with a 
single stem of all sizes. 2. Shrubs, that is, hard-wooded 
plants having several stems or much-branched single 
stems, averaging in height from one to fifteen feet. 
8. Herbs, plants that produce a flower stem direct from 
the ground, which after perfecting seed dies ; generally- 
known as herbaceous plants. 4. All kinds of grasses, 
including corn. 5. Ferns, mosses, muslirooiiis, kc. 

The first four of these divisions comprehend all 
flowering plants called Phcenogams ; the fifth, flowerless 
plants known as Cryptogams, the study of which forms 
a distinct branch of botany ; but I only deem it neces- 
sary to notice their general character and nature, as 
given under their respective families. 

The technical terms used in naming and describing 
the diff'erent parts of plants, called their organs, are 
individually applied to plants of very different natures, 
and without regard to size. For example, the word trifo- 
liate is applied to all plants having three leaflets united, 
as in clover, strawberry, bramble, and laburnum ; a blade 
of grass an inch in length is linear, as are also the long 
leaves of the sugar-cane. The fruit of the currant is 
globose, so is that of the lai'gest pumpkin. Mathe- 
matical terms, as round, oval, triangular, cylindrical, 
&c., must be understood to be used in a comparative 
sense only ; it should also be noted that all the parts or 
organs are liable to vary in form in plants of the same 
kind. Many forms do not well agree with general defini- 
tions ; this is especially the case in roots, stems, and 
fruits; some families, such as orchids, require special 



OEGANS OF GROWTH. 



15 



terms to define the various forms of their peculiar stems, 
but which cannot be specially entered upon in this work. 

Every separate vegetable growth constitutes a plant, 
and consists of two special parts — viz., root and stem ; 
the latter bearing leaves and flowers. In describing 
a plant we speak of the root, stem, leaf, floiver, fruit, 
and seed, each of which varies in form and size, accord- 
ing to the nature of different plants, and it is a question 
whether we should commence with the germination of 
the seed, and trace it through all its stages to the per- 
fect plant, or with the perfect plant, and end by show- 
ing how the seed is formed, and the changes it undergoes 
in coming into life. I adopt the latter, and shall treat 
the whole subject under four different heads — viz., 
Organs of groivth, Organs of reproduction, Anatomical 
structure and Vitality, and Classification. 

I. OEGANS OF GROWTH. 
Roots. 

Roots are that part of a plant by which it is attached 
to the earth, or bodies on its surface ; sometimes under 
or floating in water, or suspended in the air ; in all cases 
increasing in length downwards, and spreading in all 
directions. They, in conjunction with the leaves, absorb 
from the earth and air the elements for sustaining the 
life and forming the numerous substances of plants 
which chemistry reveals. As might be expected, roots 
present great variety of form and structure, it some- 
times being difficult to determine between root and stem. 
As a general rule, the greater number increase in length 
by a continuous extension of fibrous points, according 
•to age thickening backwards, and in large trees becoming 
woody like the stem. 



16 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



In the division of plants to which Palms, Aloes, 
Asparagus, and the Orchis and Arum families belong, 
they are generally thick and fleshy, retaining their nearly 
uniform thickness throughout, like cord. More than a 
dozen terms are used to distinguish the difierent kinds 
of roots, but it is only necessary to mention the prin- 
cipal — Yiz., Jiliform or fibrous, which includes all slender 
thread-like roots ; long, thick, and rope-like, as rhubarb ; 
fusiform and conical being applied to such as radish, 
parsnip, &c., which are tap-roots, covered with a fleshy 
substance, the efiects of cultivation. Many similar 
kinds of fleshy bodies grow not only under, but on the 
surface of the ground, to which they are attached by 
true roots, thus imparting to them the nature of stems, 
such as turnip and beetroot. In general, they are called 
hulhous and tuberous roots, which terras are indifferently 
applied to all such bodies, but the difference between a 
bulb and tuber has not been well defined, I therefore 
restrict the term to distinct groups of plants, which with 
other root growth I classify as follows under the head of 

Root-stock Stems. 

These comprehend all plants called herbs, known by 
their leaves and flowers being produced yearly from 
underground surface buds; or from solid fleshy bodies 
that seldom rise much above the surface of the ground. 

Note. — All words compounded of corm or caul (from 
Gk. kormos, Lat. caulis, a stem) have reference to a 
stem of some kind ; the word caudex is also a name for 
stem. Words compounded of rhim refer to some kind 
of root. 

Gemmcecorms (bud-corms) include the greater number 
of plants known as herbaceous, biennial, and perennial. 



ORGANS OF GROWTH. 



17 



Their axis of growth in its simplest state consists of a bud 
furnished with roots, which multiplies itself by side buds 
(offsets), forming what is generally called the crown or 
root-stock. The increase is slow and compact, as in the 
pseony, Oriental poppy, marshmallow, sea-kale, and rhu- 
barb ; or it produces short, or long slender runners, called 
running-roots, furnished with leaf buds which become 
perfect plants, for which reason they may more properly 
be considered underground stems (sarmenta), this 
term being applicable to all plants that increase their 
domain by running-roots, such as goutweed, mint, dogs- 
bane, nettle, Michaelmas daisy, sarsaparilla, brake 
fern, and all such like usurpers. The strawberry and 
window saxifrage are examples of above-ground sar- 
menta. The runner of the potato is also of the same 
nature, but instead of the buds growing into leafy stems 
they become swollen, round, or oblong fleshy tuberous 
bodies, which ultimately lose their attachment to the 
stem, and become independent tubers furnished with 
buds (eyes), which develop into leafy flower stems, each 
becoming a separate plant, the tuber ultimately decaying. 
From this it may be considered a metamorphosed stem, 
and all such are known by the name of tubers. The 
Jerusalem artichoke and ulluco of Peru are of the same 
nature, as also some other knot-rooted plants of the pea, 
mint, and umbel families. 

In Achimenes and others of the Gloxinia family, also 
some figworts, the root stems consist of numerous, 
generally compact scales, forming oblong, linear, or long 
slender worm -like bodies, growing on, but more usually 
under the surface ; each scale is a rudimentary bud which 
in season developes into leaf and flower stems. To this 
the term lejpicorm is applied. 

C 



18 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Tuhercorms consist of a fleshy stem-like body, vary- 
ing in form from round and nearly flat to globose, 
oblong, cylindrical or conical, and in size from an inch 
to three feet in d'ameter, producing leaves and flower 
stems from their centre or apex ; beet, yam, several 
kinds of convolvulus, bryony, &c., are underground 
examples ; the above-grcund ones are turnip, cyclamen, 
wild chervil (Leontice), several kinds of vine (Cissus), 
fleshy geranium and other plants of like nature, natives 
of South Africa. 

Rhizomat is a term applied to all fleshy roots creep- 
ing on or under the surface, and emitting roots from no 
definite point on their under side, of which some kinds 
of Begonias and water lilies are examples. This and the 
preceding terms refer to plants with net- veined leaves 
only. 

Rhizocorm. — The rhizome is a creeping root- stock, 
its limits of extension being indefinite, producing leaves 
and flowers from its progressing bud. It is either 
simple or branched, thick and fleshy as in common iris, 
sweet flag, and Indian shot (Canna) ; or slender, as in 
lily of the valley, Solomon's-seal, and part of the Arum 
family. Many kinds of creeping roots are called rhizomes, 
but a true rhizome is known by the leaves, when mature, 
falling away from the stem as by a joint, leaving a round 
mark or scar, and restrictedly with the following, includes 
only plants with parallel-veined leaves. 

Bulbocorm is a term applied to solid fleshy bodies, 
generally known as bulbs ; they grow erect, and mul- 
tiply by buds (ofi"sets) from their base or sides, the 
crocus, gladiolus, belladonna lily, narcissus, and others 
of the Iris and Amaryllis families being examples, as 
also the cultivated Taras and other bulb roots of the 



OEGANS OF GROWTH. 



19 



Arum and Orchid families. It is generally a simple 
body, but also often variously lobed, as in some of the 
Melanth family. The word corm may also be extended 
to what are called pseudo-hulbs, whic'^ is applied to the 
bulb-like and cylindrical stems of man) tropical orchids 
that grow above and under the surface. 

Phyllocorm (leaf- corm). — This term is applicable to 
the bulb of the onion, lily, crown imperial and allies ; it 
differs from the preceding in not being solid, but com- 
posed of the bases of leaves more or less firmly over- 
lapping each other ;* such being termed coated or 
tunicated, and therefore not a true stem. In these the 
leaves are deciduous. But the term also includes a set of 
plants with parallel veined permanent leaves seated on 
an erect, short, or very rudimentai'y axis, the bases in 
some becoming thickened, swollen, and bulb-like ; the 
stemless American and African aloes, and others of the 
lily and amaryllis, nearly the whole of the pineapple, 
anthuriums, and others of the Arum families being ex- 
amples, also tuft growing (ccesjgitose) grasses, as pampas, 
tussac, and dogsfoot. 

There are many special cases difficult to classify under 
any of the above terms, of which the singular plant known 
as Elephant's-foot, or Tortoise plant, is an example. 
Some botanists describe it as a rhizome, while its erect 
growth, and its developing flower, stems, and leaves from 
its apex only, indicate it to be more properly corm. Its 
congener black bryony, a native of this country, is an- 
other example. 

Plants growing in fresh water are termed Aquatics. In 
general their root stems agree with the above definitions. 



* See Structure of Stems. 

c2 



20 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Plants that germinate from seeds and die within a year 
form no root-stem or bud ; all such are called annuals. 

Tree Stems. 

These comprehend all plants with permanent soft or 
hard wood stems, as represented by trees, shrubs, palms, 
aloes, &c. 

Palmids. — Plants with stems varying from 1 to 150 
or more feet in height, with parallel- veined leaves ; they 
are either simple, unbranched, as in most palms, tree 
Strelitzia, grass trees of Australia, the family of cycads, 
and tree ferns ; or with two or more branches, as dome 
palm, screw pine, dragon tree, and several of the pine- 
apple family. 

Arbors (trees). — All plants having a single erect stem, 
bearing a head of branches, are known as trees. They 
vary from a few to 400 feet in height, and from a few 
inches to 30 feet in diameter. They are simple cylindrical, 
or tapering, as in common trees ; sometimes fluted, as in 
the wheel tree ; or the lower part forming large but- 
tresses, as in the silk cotton and locust trees of the West 
Indies. Some have what are called gouty stems, their 
base or lower portion being thick and swollen, but sud- 
denly contracting to a slender stem or head, resembling 
a common black bottle ; hence the bottle or barrel tree 
of Australia, while Adenium ohesium, a native of Aden, 
represents a champagne bottle. The baobab, or Monkey 
Bread of Africa, is also remarkable for its swollen lower 
part, in some instances measuring 80 and 90 feet in girth, 
and not much more than half that number of feet in height. 

Frutices (shrubs) comprehend all plants with se- 
veral stems, rising from the same base in a spreading 
direction, forming a bush, such as common laurel, bar- 



ORGANS OF GROWTH. 



21 



berry, and lilac ; they vary from a few inches to 10 or 
more feet in height. But under certain conditions some 
trees become shrubs, and many shrubs assume the cha- 
racter of small trees. 

Fruticuls. — A term generally applied to small shrubs 
with soft-wooded stems, such as the greater part of 
Acanthus^ many of the Gloxinia and Asclepias families, 
also shrubby begonias, peppers, geraniums, crassulas, fig 
marigold, &c. 

Ampelids (climbers, generally called vines). — This 
term designates slender stems that trail on or near 
the ground, as bramble ; or climb up trees to which they 
hold by different kinds of appendages, such as hooked 
spines, as in roses and climbing palms, — thread-like 
claws or spiral coils (tendrils), as in the vine, trumpet and 
passion flowers, — or twisted leafstalks, as in Virgin's 
bower and the Indian pitcher plant. 

Twiners. — This is applied to plants that support them- 
selves by twining round others, forming a firm spiral 
coil, in many instances reaching to the tops of lofty trees, 
as woodbine, periploca, Chinese wistari a, as also the 
herbaceous stems of bindweed, hop, and scarlet-runner. 
The direction of the ascending spire is in most plants 
from left to right, but in the scarlet-runner it is from 
right to left. 

dingers (rooting stems). — This applies to woody 
stems that trail on the ground or ascend trees, to which 
they adhere by numerous roots produced from their whole 
under surface, as ivy, Bignonia radicans, numerous kinds 
of tropical figs, and the New Zealand climbing myrtles. 
Although these hold firmly to trees, they nevertheless 
retain their root connexion with the ground, which dis- 
tinguishes them from an extensive race of plants that 



22 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



grow and maintain themselves entirely on trees without 
any connexion with the ground, such being called epi- 
phytal, of which the numerous tropical orchids and 
tillandsias are familiar examples. 

Although all climbing and twining plants are consi- 
dered to have slender flexible stems, many of them in 
age attain a foot or more in diameter, becoming firm like 
tree stems. Some assume curious forms ; in a species of 
Himalayan vine the stem is flat and thin, hanging from 
trees like machinery bands, and in a Brazilian Bauhinia 
they are broad and bent in a zigzag manner, conveying 
the idea of stair steps. 

There is a set of low plants that grow in tufts, remain- 
ing green all the year, of which the pink, carnation, sea- 
thrift, saxifrage, sedum, blue and yellow alyssum, and 
dwarf fig marigold are examples. In gardens they are 
always ranked with herbaceous plants, but their perma- 
nent stems give them more the character of shrubs. I 
therefore apply to them the term frutlets. The evergreen 
candytuft may be considered to hold an intermediate 
position between them and hard-wooded shrubs. 

Sarcocauls (fleshy stemmed plants). — This term is ap- 
plied to stems composed of soft succulent matter, gene- 
rally surrounding a woody centre; the cactus family, 
African euphorbs and Stapelias afford familiar examples. 
Plants with this kind of stem are leafless, and often 
three- four- five- or many-sided, or furrowed ; they 
are also globose, pyramidal, or conical, and are either 
smooth, as in the melon-shaped euphorb, or prickly, as 
in the Echinus section of cactse. Flagelliform, or cord- 
like stems, are represented by the creeping cereus and its 
allies ; some are also perfectly flat and more or less broad. 

Stems are called articulated when composed of pieces 



ORGANS OF GROWTH. 



23 



joined end to end, as in several species of cactus, Kleinia, 
and mistletoe ; or of round knobs, like turnip radishes, 
joined together, as in Euphorbia globosa. 

Some plants growing in hot, dry places in South 
Africa, have stems and branches more like petrified 
objects, or coral, than living plants — Geranium Bur- 
mannii being an example — and may be compared to 
pieces of light-green wax candles stuck together in an 
irregular manner. Colletia horrida, a hardy garden shrub, 
is a singular example of a stem being winged, consisting 
of woody triangular opposite lobes, alternating at right 
angles to each other. But the most remarkable plant 
stem of recent discovery is that of Welwitschia mira- 
hilis, which with many of the preceding will be specially 
noticed under their respective families. 

In the cactus family, and many trees and herbs, the 
stems are often flat and contorted in a crested manner, like 
the garden cockscomb, all such growths being viewed as 
monstrosities, and to which the term fasciated is applied. 

Branches. (Lat. ramiy Gk. cladus.) 

Branches are lateral multiplications of the main stem ; 
their nature, relative position to each other, and angles 
of divergence impart to trees special aspects or phases 
which are generally very uniform to all trees of the same 
species growing under similar influences. Their direc- 
tion varies from erect to horizontal and pendulous, as in 
the weeping willow and birch. In firs and araucarias they 
are produced in whorls, some forming a right angle with 
the stem. In Dammara and some species of Podocarpus 
they are deciduous, falling away, and leaving a clear 
scar or mark, giving the character of being attached to 
the stem by a joint. 



24 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



The first or main branches are called limbs, the 
smaller branchlets (ramules), and the ultimate twigs 
(ramlets). In the araucaria and arbor- vitse section of the 
fir family, the branches consist of numerous ramlets 
formed of small, firm, close, imbricated scales, which 
are, with the ramlet, permanent for several years, the 
latter ultimately falling away entire. To all such leaf- 
growths the term thyclads is applied. In the celery- 
topped pine of Tasmania {Phyllocladus) , and its congener 
of New Zealand, the ramlets are flat and broad, assuming 
the character of leaves, there being no true leaves. 

The stems and branches of many plants are furnished 
with what may be called weapons of defence, chiefly 
consisting of prickles and thorns, which are either pro- 
duced on the bark, or connected with the wood ; the 
first are called aculei, and the latter spines; but these 
terms are indifi'erently applied to prickly and thorny- 
plants in general. They are common to many of the 
apple, pea, rose, orange, gooseberry, and cactus families, 
and are either simple and straight as in the gooseberry 
and hawthorn, curved or hooked as in roses and some 
palms, forked as in the Natal plum, algarobs, and others 
of the mimosa family, or branched, as in the honey locust 
tree of North America, in which they are at least six inches 
in length, growing in clusters on the stem and main 
branches, and presenting the appearance of chevaux- 
de-frise. In the cactus family they vary from hair-like 
bristles to spikes six or more inches in length, some 
being flat like swords, others like broad hooks, and of a 
hard bony nature. In the curious Mexican shrub 
Fouquiera, the midrib of the leaves is permanent, and 
becomes a hard stifi" spine. 

Nettles, loasads, and jatropha are furnished with 



ORGANS OF GROWTH. 



25 



stinging bristle hairs, seated on a small vesicle or tuber- 
cule containing poisonous fluid, which is ejected on the 
hairs being pressed, causing irritation when coming in 
contact with the skin. 

Armed plants do not appear to possess any special 
protection ; their fi'uits are in general accessible to 
animals, especially birds, and their thorny branches are 
no protection against being browsed on by quadrupeds. 
Therefore what appeal's to be weapons of defence are not 
so in nature. 

Baek. (Lat. cortex, Gk. derma.) 

All parts of plants are invested with a skin, called the 
haj-k or rli'ind, which in permanent stems thickens with 
age; in leaves, young stems and branches it is thin and 
soft, being composed of layers of cells (see Structure) of 
various forms and natures, the surface of the whole 
covered with a filmy membrane called the cuticle, which 
with the cells below it forms the outer coat (epidermis), 
the layer next the wood being called liher. In old trees, 
as in the elm, it becomes furrowed ; in the oak it is hard 
and firm, or light as in the cork oak ; in the lime it 
consists of fibrous layers capable of being twisted into 
ropes ; and in the paper birch it separates into sheets 
like pasteboard, from which boats are made. In some 
species of Daphne, Melalaeuca, and other plants, it con- 
sists of numerous layers which readily separate from each 
other, and form sheets like paper ; while that of the lace 
bark tree of Jamaica is netted, and has been used as a 
substitute for lace. 

The outer bai'k of some trees separates spontaneously, 
as in the plane. Palms and their allies have no true 
bark (see Structure). 



26 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Edds. (L. gemma.) 

Most plants have a periodic season of activity and 
another of repose. In temperate climates it is ruled by 
the alternating seasons of heat and cold ; in tropical 
countries by the wet and dry seasons. The change from 
activity to repose called hihernating (wintering) is 
marked by the ripening of the seeds, fall of the leaves, 
and formation of buds containing the genns of the future 
leaves, flowers, and axis of extension of the plant, which 
by the agency of heat and moisture at the proper season 
burst into active growth. Buds are formed of thin 
brown (in the ash, black) scales folded over each other ; 
they are very conspicuous in the horse-chestnut, ash, 
plane, oak, maple, &c. A bud terminates the branches 
of all trees and shrubs, being also often produced in the 
axis of the leaves. When a tree is deprived of its leaves 
and buds by lopping or otherwise, it has by the vital 
action of its fluids the power of produciug buds from 
below the bark, through which they are protruded ; these 
are called adventitious huds. The buds of many trees, 
when separated with a small portion of the bark attached, 
are capable under favourable circumstances of be- 
coming a plant ; and by the process of what is called 
budding they may also be transferred from one plant 
to another, as commonly practised with rose trees. 

Palms, aloes, and many other succulent plants have 
no true buds, but in many, such as tiger and other lilies, 
also agaves and ferns, buds called viviparous are pro- 
duced on the flower stems, which under favourable cir- 
cumstances become plants. 



ORGANS OF GROWTH. 



27 



Leaves. (L. folium, G. phyllon.) 

Leaves are flat expansions common to most plants, 
and are sometimes only in a very rudimental state, or 
entirely wanting, as in the cactus family and other plants 
called succulents. They vary from the eighth of an 
inch to twenty and even thirty* feet in length, and in 
form and size from a small needle to a complete circular 
disc, from five to six feet in diameter, as in the Victoria 
lily. They are either deciduous, that is, ripening and 
falling to the ground in autumn, being reproduced in 
the spring, or permanent for two or more years, as in 
evergreen trees and shrubs. In Araucarias and others of 
the fir family they are permanent for many years, only 
losing their vitality with that of the branch or ramlet, as 
explained under branches. 

Leaves perform an important part in the life of plants, 
and in conjunction with the roots assimilate the difi'erent 
substances absorbed in the sap. 

The structure of leaves is cellular, the cells containing 
a matter called chlorophyll, which gives them their 
colour. Although green is the normal tint, there are 
many departures from it, as in red cabbage, the sombre 
prince's feather, purple beech and perilla. Others again 
have the brightest colours, as several species of caladium 
and begonia ; several aroids are quite of a metallic hue. 
When the colours are mixed, as in holly and aucuba, 
they are called variegated ; some have lines or bars, as 
the zebra plant ; others of the same genus have golden, 
white and pink stripes ; and in the Indian shrub Grap- 
tophyllum hortense, the variegation resembles caricature 



See index, Large Leaves. 



28 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



forms of the human face, whence it is known as the 
caricature plant. Many leaves are lucid and reflect 
light ; some are also in imitation of flowers, as in the 
common red and blue clary. Leaves are attached to 
the stem by a footstalk, called the petiole, which is 
short or long, and in some plants entirely wanting ; the 
leaf is then called sessile. They generally have a mid- 
rib, which is a continuation of the footstalk, and are 
traversed by veins (see Structure) containing vascular 
vessels ; the whole is enclosed by a skin called the cuticle^ 
the upper surface being at a greater or less angle with 
the zenith, and the under facing downwards. The 
microscope shows both sides of the leaf, but more espe- 
cially the under, to have pores, in some instances so 
numerous that a square inch contains many thousands ; 
these pores are round or oblong, and are called stomata, 
being the inhalers and exhalers of the atmosphere, and 
equivalent in their action to the breathing pores and 
lungs of animals. The diff'erence between the upper 
and under surfaces of leaves is familiar to common obser- 
vation, but there are exceptions to this rule. 

In a great number of the trees and shrubs compos- 
ing the vegetation of Australia, by a twist of the petiole, 
the leaves stand vertical, that is, the one edge towards 
the sky and the other towards the earth, both sides in 
this case having stomata. In the pretty flowering lily 
genus, Alstromeria, the twist is so great that the true 
upper side becomes the under. 

Leaves in general are thin and soft, being easily 
crumpled, soon withering when separated from the plant; 
or tough like leather ; or they are hard and stiff, as in 
the cycad family, and many Australian woody plants ; 
or thick and fleshy, as in aloes and other succulents. 



OEGANS OF GROWTH. 



29 



Sometimes they are hollow and closed at the top, as an 
onion leaf, or in the form of an urn or vase, as in pitcher 
plants. 

Leaves are either simple or compound. Simple leaves 
are linear when long and narrow and of nearly uniform 
width, such as grasses ; lanceolate, when broad at the 
base, and tapering to a point like a lance, as Adam's 
needle ; elliptical, oval, or ohlong, when longer than 
broad, with obtuse ends ; ovate, broader at one end like 
an egg ; rotund, round, in the form of a circular disc, as 
in pennywort, sacred bean, and the Victoria lily. These 
words are sometimes used conjointly, thus ovate-lanceo- 
late, ovate-elliptical, and ohlong-lanceolate, which de- 
notes that the leaf partakes in some degree of both 
forms. Leaves tapering to a point are called acuminate ; 
cordate (heart-shaped), when lobed at the base in the 
form of a heart, as in water lilies ; hastate, when the 
lobes project like a halbert. 

The margins are either entire, or with little blunt 
projections like teeth, toothed or dentate; or sharp like 
a saw, serrate ; sometimes they are deeply gashed, 
laciniated, as in the artichoke ; pinnatifid, when, the 
divisions (lacince) are uniform and divided to near the 
midrib, as in the common polypod fern. When the 
margin is but slightly rounded or wavy, it is termed 
sinuose; when waved up and down, undulate or crisped. 
These terms apply chiefly to ohlong and lanceolate 
leaves. Those of a roundish form, or as wide as long, are 
called deltoid, vfhen their margins are also entire; sinuose, 
when more or less deeply laciniated, the divisions being 
called lobes; when five-lobed they are called palmate 
or hand-like, as in the oriental plane ; or flahellate, fan- 
like, having the surface plaited, as in fan palms. 



so 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



The lobes may be either entire, dentate, serrate, or again 
laciniatedj or yery much divided, multifid, as in parsley. 

Compound leaves consist of simple leaves produced 
from a centre, or on a common footstalk, called rachis, 
and each individual leaflet may be of any of the above 
forms. The simplest compound leaf is conjugate, that 
is, consisting of two leaves united, as in bean-caper and 
"West Indian locust-tree ; it is trifoliate when three are 
united, of which clover and the scarlet-runner are ex- 
amples ; digitate, when more than three issue from the 
same point, as the horse-chestnut; pinnate (winged), 
when there are two or more pairs on a rachis, like the 
pea, bean, and ash ; hipinnate, tripinnate, and sometimes 
quadripinnate, is when the first rachis produces a second, 
and the second a third, on which the leaflets are borne. 
The sensitive and umbel plants, with others of the Mimosa 
tribe, as also the hardy tree Gymnocladus canadensis and 
Aralia arhorea are examples of the latter. 

Whatever may be the form of leaves, whether flat, 
undulate, or curled in any way, they are either glabrous, 
naked ; or pubescent, clothed. They are glabrous when 
the skin or cuticle is quite destitute of hairs, or any ex- 
traneous covering; they may nevertheless be covered 
with small rough points, warty tubercules, or stifi" spines 
on both surface and margin. They are pubescent when 
clothed with hairs, wool, or scurf-like covering com- 
mon to leaves and other organs of plants. This cover- 
ing is very varied in character; setose, when the hairs 
are stiff" like bristles ; pilose and villose, when the hairs 
are long, soft, and silky ; lanuginose, when interwoven, 
forming a woolly, felt-like web ; tomentose, when short, 
and so close as to give colour (generally white) to the 
leaf ; scabrous, when the surface of the leaf is covered 



ORGANS OF GROWTH. 



SI 



with small rough hair points, feeling like sand paper; 
scurfy, when covered with minute scurf, easily scraped off, 
as in pineapple leaves ; lepidote, when covered with thin 
scales, generally circular, lying flat on the surface, as in 
Elceagnus and Deutzia, such being beautiful objects in 
the microscope. Squamcd is a term for scales when long 
and pointed, as common to ferns. 

Hairs are simple or sometimes forked ; in the Malpigh 
family, the genus Incligofera (Indigo) and Grevillea 
(Silk oak), they are attached by their centres, lying flat 
on the surface of the leaf ; or in rays like a star, stellate, 
as in the Mallow family ; in Solamim macranthum they 
are raised above the surface and rayed, giving the idea 
of a turnstile. When the hairs are on the margin of 
the leaf only, it is called ciliate or fringed. 

Some leaves bear on their footstalk, margin, or disk, 
small globular teat- or shield-like bodies, generally of a 
pale, or brown colour, or even black as in St. John's- 
wort j they are more or less firm or soft, often viscid, 
and are called glands, sometimes sunk like little pores 
or pits. The substance of many leaves is full of dots, 
which are seen by holding a leaf of myrtle, orange, or 
St. John's-wort between the eye and the light ; these are 
called pellucid glands, or dots, and with the preceding, 
are characteristic of several natural families. 

The position of leaves on the stem is either alternate, 
opposite, or in luhorls of three or more, verticillate ; or 
several issuing from, or near the same point, fasciculate. 

According to rule, the evolution of leaves is alternate, 
the young unfolding leaf being always in advance, and 
on one side of the one preceding it; the circuit of the 
stem being completed by the evolution of every five 
leaves, which may be readily seen by examination of 



32 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



young shoots of willow, poplar, or any free growing 
stem. This applies to net-veined leaved plants only. It 
is, however, difficult to reconcile opposite or verticillated 
with this view, but careful examination shows that in 
some cases their bases are not in the same plane of at- 
tachment. In Sempervivum (house-leek), the leaves 
are so compact and imbricate over each other, that in 
S. sahulare they form a round flat disk ; in Scalyciforme 
they are curved inwards, forming a cup. The term 
rosette is applied to plants of this nature, with which is 
included Saxifraga 'pyramidalis and its allies ; all leaves 
rising direct from the root- stock bud are called radical. 
Leaves are amplexicaul (stem clasping), when the bases 
surround the stem, and when such is the case in opposite 
leaves, they are called connate, as in teazles. In Crassula 
perforata its opposite leaves are so united together, that 
by a little pressure with the fingers, they can be made to 
revolve round the stem. It has been stated that succulent 
stemmed plants, as cactse, are destitute of leaves, and this 
is not uncommon in many other plants, as furze, the 
thorns of which may be considered in place of leaves; 
true leaves being only occasionally seen. But the most 
special example of leafless plants is found in a great 
number of Australian species of Acacia, consisting of 
trees and shrubs of very diff'erent habits, apparently 
clothed with leaves, varying from needle-like to the 
breadth of one, two, or three inches, and from four, 
six, eight, or more inches in length, having a midrib 
and veins ; they are, however, not true leaves, but leaf- 
stalks (petioles) only, as is evident on examining the 
base of connexion, their margins being vertical, and not 
in the ordinary horizontal position of leaves. These 
are called phyllodce ; but that they are only leafstalks 



ORGANS OF GEOWTH. 



33 



is manifest by their bearing true leaves on their margin, 
which is very common in young plants, and in some 
cultivated species they continue to be produced for a 
number of years. In some plants branches are flattened 
and perform the functions of leaves, as in the species of 
Xylophylla (wood-leaf), small trees, natives of the West 
Indies, having appendages like leaves, but which bearing 
flowers and true leaves on their margin (the latter rarely 
seen), must therefore be considered as branches, though 
possessing the character of true leaves in not increasing 
in size as branches. 

In many plants, immediately below the attachment of 
the leaves a little leaf-like appendage is to be seen, which 
is called the stipule. In some it is large and leaf-like, 
as in many of the Pea family, in others very small and 
scale-like ; its presence or absence forms an important 
character in determining the affinities of plants. 

The plants called ferns have no true leaves, their leaf- 
like expansions being called fronds, and their footstalk 
stipes, which are explained under their families. 

The above is a brief explanation of the principal 
forms and nature of leaves, but it must be understood 
that there are many special forms that can only be pro- 
perly described individually, such as the Indian, Ameri- 
can, and Australian pitcher-plants, Yenus's fly-trap, lat- 
tice-leaf, &c., which will be noticed under their respec- 
tive families. 

II. ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 

Flowers. {L.flos, G. anthos.) 

The principle of vegetable life is to produce flowers 
which contain organs for reproducing their kind, and in 
the majority of plants are developed annually from special 

D 



34 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



formed buds in many different ways. In herbs they are 
produced on stems that rise from the root-stock, and in 
trees and shrubs from buds on the apex, or sides of the 
stem and branches, often in the axis of the leaves, and 
even on the leaves, as in butcher's broom.* In deciduous 
trees and shrubs they usually expand before the leaf- 
buds, and by their profusion and bright colours form for 
a brief period the brilliant aspect of nature as presented 
by our fruit orchards and early-flowering ornamental 
trees ; also by the purple heath and golden flowers of the 
furze and broom on our commons and hills. 

The manner in which flowers are produced is termed 
the inflorescence, and its position and mode of arrange- 
ment forms an important feature in the character of 
plants. Flowers are either produced singly, or two or 
more together, on a comm.on axis ; they are either ses- 
sile (stalkless) or furnished with a footstalk called the 
peduncle, which bears from one to many flowers ; when 
more than one, the secondary footstalk of each is called 
the pedicel (a little footstalk). 

Many terms are employed to designate the various 
forms of inflorescence, but for the purpose of this work it 
will be sufficient to notice the most important, as follows : 

Fascicle. — When two or more peduncles, each bearing 
a single flower, rise from a common centre, as in cherry, 
apple, pear, and hawthorn. 

Capitula. — When a number of flowers, often sessile, 
are produced on the apex of a peduncle in the form of a 
compact globose or oblong head, as in onion, clover, 
teazle, thistle, and sea-thrift. 

Umbel. — When the peduncles radiate from a terminal 
centre and bear on their apex several pedicellate flowers, 

* See Lily family. 



ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 



35 



which from their contiguity, form a close, compact, flat 
or convex surface like an open umbrella, as in parsley, 
parsnip, carrot, and the umbel family in general ; all 
such are called compound umbels ; — a simple umhel is 
when a number of pedicellate flowers rise from a solitary 
peduncle, as in the ivy. 

Cyme. — When the peduncles radiate from a centre, as 
in the umbel, each bearing a flower on its apex and pro- 
ducing from around its base short pedicels bearing flowers 
forming small umbels, as in the elder. Guelder rose, and 
laurestine. 

Spicate. — When a number of sessile flowers are pro- 
duced on a peduncle in the form of a spike, as in lavender, 
purple lythrum, and common plantain. The axis on 
which the flowers are seated is called the rachis ; the 
spike is generally cylindrical, tapering to a point, or it is 
angular. In some the flowers are in two rows, one on 
each side of the rachis, or they are all on one side ; the 
first of these is called a distichous and the latter a secund 
spike. In some spikes the flowers are in whorls (verti- 
cillate), as in many of the Mint family. 

Raceme. — When the flowers are arranged on a rachis 
(as in a spike) but more distant, and each having an 
evident pedicel, as the hyacinth and foxglove. Some 
secund spikes and racemes are curved inwards, to which 
the term scorpioid is applied, as in scorpion grass and 
species of Tournefortia. 

Corymb. — Is a raceme having the lower pedicels the 
longest, the upper ones diminishing towards the apex, 
thus bringing the whole to nearly the same level, each 
bearing a flower, which flowers, by their contiguity, form 
a flat or umbel-like head, as in candytuft. 

Panicle, — A branched spike or raceme, the branches 
D 2 



36 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



generally rising from or near the base of the common 
axis. They are often contiguous, as in some species of 
phlox, larkspur, monkshood, and some veronicas ; or 
they are distant, with the lower part often naked, forming 
loose panicles, as in many grasses. 

Thyrse. — A much branched inflorescence, being a 
compound of the spike, raceme, and panicle, as in the 
vine, lilac, rhubarb, and many palms. 

Ament cr Catkiri. — A special kind of spike, formed of 
scales bearing incomplete flowers, chiefly characteristic 
of the willow, oak, walnut, and allied families (fig. l,d); 

Fig. 1. 




the male flowers of the fir family is an ament, the female 
a cone (see Fruit). 

Clinanthium (bed or receptacle). — A thick spongy or 
fleshy body of various forms, bearing numerous flowers ; 
in the Contrayerva it is a flat disk with flowers on one 
side only, in the Osage orange and breadfruit it is 
globose or oblong, the whole surface being occupied with 
sessile flowers ; in the fig it is a hollow cone, the flowers 
lining the cavity (see Fruit) ; in the thistle family it is 
round and flat, convex or columnar, and known as the 
receptacle (fig. 1, c). 



ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 



37 



Scape is a term applied to special flower-stalks of some 
rootstocks, such as the simple naked peduncle of the 
primrose and cowslip; it is common to bulb and leaf 
corms, as also to some Palmids, examples of the first 
being tulip and hyacinth, and of the latter, cycads and 
grass trees ; it is also applied to branched peduncles, as 
in Adam's-needle, and aloes. 

Culvi is a term applied to the flower- stalks of grasses. 

The inflorescence is either naked or furnished with 
small leaf-Hke appendages called hracts, or more or less 
surrounded or enclosed in leafy cups or sheaths, termed 
involucre and spathes. 

By'acts are seated immediately below the flower, on 
or at the base of the pedicel or peduncle ; they are often 
small and scale-like, in some flower spikes they are broad, 
closely overlapping one another like tiles on a roof, 
imbricate, in the form of a cone, as in many of the 
Acanthus family. 

Involucrce are either small leaflets in whorls seated 
below each flower, as in the Mallow family, or below the 
common axis of the pedicels of umbels ; in the Virginian 
spider-wort, and others of the same family, it is in two 
pieces, like a bivalved shell, enclosing many flowers, and 
in the Marvel of Peru it is in the form of a leafy cup 
(fig. I, h) ; in the Composite family it consists of nume- 
rous imbricated scales, forming compact heads of nume- 
rous small flowers, called florets; both bracts and invo- 
lucre are often highly coloured, as in many of the Acan- 
thus and Euphorb families. Bougainvillaea and scarlet 
Monarda. The difference between bracts and involucre 
is often not evident; for instance, the male spike of the 
banana, which consists of closely imbricate bracts, their 
base nearly surrounding the axis, each being common 



38 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



to a cluster of sessile flowers, thus partaking of the 
character of involucre. 

Spathe is a kind of involucre, opening on one side in 
the form of a sheath, generally erect, sometimes like a 
hood, the flowers being borne on a spike, raceme, or 
more compound inflorescence, which is called spadix, of 
which the Arum and Palm families are examples (fig. 1, a). 
It is sometimes thin, leafy, and membranous, as in the 
leek, dafi'odil, and many Arums ; but in some of the latter, 
Strelitzia, and Palms, it is often thick, firm, and hard. 
In some it is highly coloured, and in the common 
trumpet-lily it is nearly pure white, in others it is wide 
and spreading, and of a brown or even black colour, and 
many of them very foetid, while Caladium odoratmn is 
the contrary. 

The true spathe is found only in the class of plants 
with parallel veined leaves, some net-veined plants have 
their flowers in sheathing bracts, similar to a spathe, as 
in the rhubarb. 

I now proceed to speak of the forms and parts of 
flowers individually. 

The study of Morphology, that is, the transformation 
or change which the organs of a plant undergo, shows 
that flowers are merely transformed leaves. But much 
investigation is required before it can be shown that the 
curious and splendid flowers of Orchids, Victoria lily; or 
the insignificant ones of Palms, Rushes, and Grasses, are 
formed of metamorphosed leaves, and although there is 
much evidence in support of this theory, it is only neces- 
sary for our purpose to notice that such views exist. 
When a plant flowers, it has put on its bridal dress, the 
costume of which is as varied as the fashions of the dif- 
ferent nations of the earth, being either plain or bril- 



ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 



39 



liantly coloured, and from the simplest to the most 
grotesque in form ; or sometimes quite deficient of 
ornamental appendages. On examining any common 
regular- formed flowers, such as the primrose, convolvulus, 
phlox, buttercup, strawberry, cherry, apple, &c., they will 
be found to consist of five distinct parts, which in the 
different families of plants present great variation in size, 
form, and relative position to one another. The first is the 
the outer covering called calyx ; the second the interior 
part, generally white, or of some brilliant colour, called 
the corolla, and which to common observers constitutes 
the true flower. The third interior are thread-like bodies 
(often very short) in greater or less number, called 
stamens ; fourth, in the centre, round which the stamens 
are arranged, are one or more pin -like bodies, generally 
with a pointed, flat, round, simple, divided, or rayed top, 
which are called the pistils or pistilla. 

Fifth, on the removal of the calyx, corolla, and sta- 
mens, the pistil will be seen seated on a round knob, or 
more or less elevated column called the ovary or germen, 
which contains rudimentary seeds and becomes the fruit ; 
it terminates the footstalk of all flowers, which is either 
a mere point or more or less flat or convex disk called 
the thalamus or bed. In many cases its apex only is 
seen, its body being seated below the calyx. The difference 
of form and number of these appendages, and their rela- 
tive position to each other, furnish the data upon which 
the classification of flowering plants into families is 
founded. It is therefore necessary to describe them in- 
dividually. 

Calyx. — As already stated, the calyx is the outer 
covering of the flower ; it varies extremely in size and 
form, being either small and inconspicuous, or large and 



40 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



often highly coloured, as in the fuchsia. It is either 
perfect or iroperfect, sometimes entirely wanting, its place 
heing then represented hy scales or hracts, as in the 
walnut and poplar. When perfect, it consists of one, two, 
or many separate pieces, each piece heing called a sepal ; 
therefore when of one piece it is monosepalous, when of 
two or more, polysepalo2is. When monosepalous it is 
in the form of a tuhe, or inflated like a goblet, or its 
mouth is wide and spreading like a cup or open dish ; or 
it is even flat like a disk, as in the pretty greenhouse 
creeper Mhodochiton. Its margin or rim is either entire, 
equally or unequally notched, toothed, or deeply cleft. 




the divisions being called lacince. Common examples of 
these forms are to be seen in the primrose, clove, catch- 
fly, and potato. 

The strawberry, geranium, and ranunculus are ex- 
amples of polysepalous calyx. The lacinse and sepals 
are either equal in form and size, as in the strawberry, 
or very unequal, as in the pea family. 

In a genus of tropical shrubs called Musscenda, the 
calyx is five-parted, four of these parts being very small, 
like dents, and of a green colour, while the fifth is large, 
nearly round, one to two inches in diameter, of a pure 



ORGANS OF REPEODUCTION. 



41 



white, yellow, or red, which by their position to each 
other have the appearance of a large open flower. In 
many plants the calyx generally falls away soon after the 
opening of the flower ; or is more permanent, increasing 
in size, and becoming inflated, as the winter cherry, or it 
becomes fleshy like an apple, which is only the tube of 
the calyx enlarged, and embedding the ovary. In the 
lily and allied families the calyx is not obviously distinct 
from the corolla, the flowers consisting of six parts, 
generally of uniform size and colour; it is however^ 
found that they are in two whorls of three each, the three 
lower representing the calyx; in some the parts are 
more or less united, forming a monopetalous flower ; the 
term perianth is usually applied to cases of this kind. 

In the genus Eucalyptus (gum trees) and the yellow- 
flowered plant known as Eschscholtzia, the calyx, instead 
of opening in the usual way, becomes transversely cir- 
cumcised, the upper portion falling away in the form of 
a cap or extinguisher, the margin of the lower part re- 
presenting a ring. This kind of calyx is called oper- 
culum. 

Corolla. — The corolla is always seated within or on 
the calyx. It consists of one, two, or many pieces called 
petals ; when in one piece it is monopetalous, when of 
two or more pieces, polypetalous. Monopetalous co- 
rollas, when spreading and nearly flat, are called salver- 
shaped, as in the primrose (fig. 2, a) ; funnel-shaped, 
as in the convolvulus, rhododendron, azalea, and gardenia; 
campanulate, or bull-shaped, as Canterbury bell and gen- 
tianella; ringent (gaping), as in monkey flower ; labiate, 
or lipped, as in sage, thyme, foxglove (fig. 2, h) ; tubular, 
long and of equal width like a tube, as in the trumpet 
honeysuckle ; urceolate, swelling out in the middle, and 



42 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



having a narrow mouth like an urn or vase, as in 
most of the species of Andromeda, and many heaths. 
In polypetalous flowers the petals vary from linear to 
nearly round ; they consist of two parts — viz., the claw 
or lower part, hy which they are attached, and the broad 
expanded part, called the limb, as for example the 
pink and wallflower ; but in many cases the distinction 
between the claw and limb is not very evident. The 
petals vary from few to many, the prevailing numbers are 
3, 4, 5, and 6, 5 being the most general (fig. 2, c). When 
the margins of petals overlap each other the flower is 
called imbricate, tiled ; when the edges are parallel and 
touch, even to have the appearance of being united, it 
is called valvate, like valves. The chief distinctions 
are as follows : — cruciform, when it consists of four 
petals placed in the form of a cross, as in the wallflower, 
ten-week stock, and all the cabbage family ; rosaceous, 
when of five uniform petals, being spread open like a 
rose ; this is common to many flowers, even inconspi- 
cuous ones ; jpajpilionaceous, butterfly-like, in which the 
petals are of three kinds, the lower edges of the two 
lowest being loosely united, giving the appearance of a 
boat and called carina or keel ; above it on each side 
are two petals, generally spread sideways or standing for- 
ward, which are called alcB or wings ; above them is the 
vexillum or standard, which has an upright direction and 
is usually large and round ; the pea, laburnum (fig. 2, d), 
furze, and broom are common examples. The corolla 
varies in size and splendour, from a minute one like that 
of the chickweed to the magnificent magnolia, cactus, 
and Victoria lily ; these are even far surpassed by the 
monstrous flower of Rafflesia Arnoldi (which see). Their 
texture varies from a thin membrane, as in the generality 



ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 



43 



of common flowers, to thick and firm, as in the magnolia ; 
or fleshy, as in stapelia. In odour too they vastly difi*er, 
the violet and rose presenting a strong contrast with the 
Stapelia and Aristolochia, 

Flowers are called regular, when all their respective parts 
are equal in size and form, as in the primrose, apple, phlox, 
potato, &c. ; irregular, when the parts of the corolla difi'er 
in size and shape, as in the violet, tropseolum, pea, fleur- 
de-luce, and orchis families. They are termed single, or 
uniform, so long as they retain the special forms, posi- 
tion, and number common to the whole of the plants of 
the species, wild or cultivated. Double, when by culti- 
vation or some hidden cause one or more of the parts 
change, as when the stamens and pistils become peta- 
loid, which change or metamorphosis gives rise to the 
beautiful double flowers of our gardens — as the wall- 
flower, ranunculus, poppy, pseony, pink, carnation, rose, 
&c. Sometimes regular flowers become irregular ; this 
is known as pelorism, of which the common toad-flax is 
an example ; as also the erect flowering varieties of 
Gloxinias. 

In many plants the corolla is absent, the flower then 
being called apetalous — that is, without petals. The 
presence or absence of calyx and corolla aff'ords charac- 
ters for dividing a great class of plants into three divi- 
sions. First, those without calyx or corolla are called 
achlamyds, without a covering, as the birch, willow, 
and oak families. Second, with a true calyx, mono- 
chlamydsj one covering ; of which the Marvel of Peru, 
sweet bay, mezereum, nettle, dock, and amaranth are 
examples. Third, those with calyx and corolla com- 
plete, dichlamyds, which is common to the majority of 
flowering plants. 



44 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



In grasses, and all kinds of corn, the calyx and co- 
rolla are replaced by envelopes called glumes and pale^e, 
which enclose the stamens and pistils in the form of 
scales, becoming the chaff of corn. 

Stamens. — The stamens consist of two parts — the fila- 
ment, or support, and the round or oblong body borne 
on its apex, called the anther. It must, however, be 
understood, that in many instances the filament is often 
very short, or even entirely absent ; the anthers are then 
said to be sessile. 

The stamens vary from one to many, the number 



Fig. 3. 




generally corresponding with the number of parts of the 
calyx and corolla; two to four or five, or their multiples, 
is the usual number in plants with net- veined leaves, and 
three or six in plants with parallel-veined leaves. Each 
stamen is either free, or the filaments are broad and 
connected at their bases, or for their whole length up- 
wards, forming a tube surrounding the ovary and pistils, 
as in the mallow, geranium, passion-flower, and pea 
families (fig. 3, c) . In the latter, there are in most cases 
nine connected together, and one loose and free (fig. 3, d). 



OEGANS OF KEPEODUCTION. 



45 



In St. John's wort, and some of the Australian myrtle 
family, a number of filaments are united together at their 
base in three or more bundles surrounding the pistil. 
In the Composite family, the anthers are linear and 
united by their edges, forming a tube, while their fila- 
ments are free (fig. 4, a). These four modes of union 
characterize the sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, and 
nineteenth classes of Linnaeus.* In the twentieth class 
of Linnaeus, which includes the great family of Orchids 
(fig. 4, b), the stamens are borne above the pistil, both of 
which are of a special nature, as also those of the 




Swallow-wort family (fig. 4, c and d). (See character of 
these families.) 

When the stamens are numerous in a flower, they ge- 
nerally vary in length ; but in the Labiate and Cruci- 
ferous families they are always of a definite length with 
regard to one another. In the former, there are four — 
two long and two short (fig. 3, a) ; in the latter, six — 
four long and two short (fig. 3, b). These characterize 
the fourteenth and fifteenth classes of Linnaeus. 

Stamens present three modes of attachment : — First, 



* See Classification. 



46 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



below the base of the ovary, as in the poppy, pseony, 
mallow, pea, and cabbage families ; such being called 
hypogynoiis (fig. 5, a). Second, on the interior side of the 
calyx and corolla, as in the apple, plum, and strawberry 
families; they are then called j^erigynous (fig. 5,6), that 
is, round the ovary. Third, on the top of the ovary 
(within the corolla), as in the day lily, fuchsia, evening 
primrose, campanula, gooseberry, and cactus ; they are 
then called epigynous (fig. 5, c and d), growing upon the 
ovary. These three terms are also appHcable to the calyx 
and corolla ; the first and last denotes the calyx and 



Fig. 5. 




corolla being inferior and superior, or when speaking of 
the ovary or fruit, the opposite. 

In some cases, especially in the plants contained in 
the fourteenth class of Linnaeus, when the corolla is 
oblique, the stamens are generally on one side, and called 
declinate. 

The words Thalamiflora, Calyciflom, and Corolliflom, 
are divisional terms used by some botanists ; the first 
two being equivalent to hypogynous and perigynous, 
and the third when the corolla is monopetalous, with 
perigynous stamens and free of the calyx. 



ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 



47 



Anthers and Pollen. — As already stated, the anthers 
are borne on the apex of the filaments ; they are of diffe- 
rent forms, and attached in various ways (fig. 6). In 
the lily and passion-flower they are linear and loosely 
attached by their centre, and are easily moved about? 
being called versatile. They are often globose or oblong, 
and attached to the side of the filament. Each consists 
of two cells, which open either by a slit, or pores at their 
apex, as in rhododendron ; or by valve-like lids, as the 
sweet bay. The cells contain a matter like powdery dust, 
generally of a yellowish colour, called pollen^ which, on 



Fig. 6. 




being examined with the microscope, will be seen to con- 
sist of definite bodies, varying in size and shape in dif- 
ferent plants (fig. 7, a), being globose, oblong, like grains 
of wheat, or tri-lobed. Their surface is either dotted, 
striated, smooth, rough, or prickly. On the application 
of moisture, they after a time burst and protrude a 
thread-like body called the pollen tube (fig. 7, d), which 
is the essence of fertilization. {See Fertilization.) 

The Pistil. — The pistil or pistils, there being often 
more than one in a flower, is seated on the ovary, and, 
when perfect, consists of two parts, the lower part being 



48 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



called the style, and the upper or apex the stigma, from 
which there is a channel of communication through the 
style to the ovary. Both parts vary extremely in form 
and organism (fig. 7, h). The style varies greatly in 
lengthj heing in some species of gardenia and cactus 
thread-like, from four to six inches long ; it is often very 
short or entirely wanting (the stigma is then sessile). 
It is either simple, forked, or branched, each terminating 
in a stigma, which is a simple point, pin or club-like, 
or rayed as in the Mallow family (fig. 7, b) . The stigma 
is often thick and fleshy, or thin, membranous and petal- 

FiG. 7. 




like, consisting of two or more lobes, as in mimulus ; or 
like a cup, hooded cyst, or cavity. Its surface is more 
or less smooth, viscid, pilose, fringed or feathery as in 
grasses. 

Ovary. — The ovary (fig. 7, c and has already been 
described as containing the germs of the future seeds, 
called ovules. In size, form, and nature it varies ex- 
tremely in difi'erent plants, and together with the number, 
position, and mode of attachment of the ovules forms a 
special branch of study to the scientific botanist. For the 
use of the amateur it will be sufficient to describe only 



ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 



49 



the most important points. The ovary consists of either 
one entire piece like a bladder, or of two, three, four, 
■five, or more pieces united by their edges, the line of 
union, or seam being called the suture, and the pieces 
valves. An ovary so formed is called valved, and accord- 
ing to the number of i^ieces, hi- valved, tri-valved, &c. 
The interior consists of one chamber, or it is divided by 
one or more partitions meeting in the centre (fig. 7, e), 
being what are termed (in the fruit) dissepiments ; they 
are either simple, straight, wavy, or branching and uniting 
in various ways, forming equal or unequal cells called 
loculi. Each cell contains one, two, or more ovules, and 
whatever may be the character of the ovary or fruit as 
regards the number of cells, or whether the cells contain 
one or many ovules (even to several hundreds, as in the . 
poppy), each ovule has a special attachment to somejj 
part of the inside of the ovary, the point of attachmeni/ { 
being called the placenta, which consists of a simple 
point, or of thickened lines or ridges rising from the 
internal surface of the ovary or partition, or of an 
elevated disk or central column (fig. 7, c). These points, 
lines, or columns have a direct connexion with the tube 
of the pistil, through which by induction the ovules be- 
come fertilized (see Fertilization). 

The attachment of the ovules to the placenta is more 
readily seen as the fruit advances to maturity ; for ex- 
ample, on opening a young pea-pod the ovules will be 
/seen lying in a row on one side attached to a thickened \ 
'cord (the placenta), which is the continuation of the '■ 
footstalk terminating in the pointed apex of the pod, 
originally the base of the pistil. 

In general, superior ovaries are sessile, but some are 
elevated above the thalamus. In the passion-flower and 

E 



50 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



caper families it is in the form of a slender peduncle, 
and in the sacred bean it consists of a thick spongy body 
bearing ovaries on its flat apex (fig. 8, d). Such kinds 
of supports are called gynophore. 

Besides the above special organs some flowers have 
supplementary ones that have received the name of nee- 
taria, and embrace all irregular anomalous structures, 
either in the form of an appendage, small knobs, glands, 
or cavities ; as the globular heads seated on the foot- 
stalks in Parnassia, or the cavities seen at the base 
of the corolla of the crown imperial, or the little scale in 
the inside of base of the petals of pile-wort, also the 
hooked spur of the petals of columbine, and many other 
such kinds of structure. 

Although many glands and cavities contain honey, 
others do not, and on considering that a number of 
flowers bear honey without any evident nectary, there- 
fore many nectaries (so called) must be viewed as various 
modifications of parts of the flower only. 

In many plants flowers are often imperfect, that is, 
wanting one or more of the parts ; in some the stamens, 
and in others pistils are absent^ in others the corolla, 
and often also the calyx. But it must be understood 
that stamens and pistils, together or separate, constitute 
a flower, without either calyx or corolla. A flower with 
stamens and pistils is called bisexual or hermaphrodite ; 
ufiisexual when either the stamens (male organs) or 
pistil (female) are alone present ; both may be in diff'erent 
flowers on the same plant, or in flowers on separate plants 
of the same species. When separate male and female 
flowers are on the same plant they constitute the twenty- 
first class of Linnaeus, called Monoscia, and when on 
separate plants, the twenty- second class, Dioecia. This 



OEGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 



51 



iSj however, not a constant character, dioecious plants 
often proving to be monoecious. 

The above are the principal forms which, in accordance 
with our ideas, represent what are called types of nature's 
rule of construction, and any deviation from the above 
may be looked on by some as freaks of nature but this 
is not admissible, for the most odd and grotesque forms 
in orchids, aristolochias, and others, are as typical of 
nature's rule as the most regular flowers, all those forms 
which appear as irregularities being brought about by a 
mere difference in size and form, or by a suppression of 
one or more parts. This may be seen by comparing 
the flowers of the pea, bean, or scarlet-runner^, with 
those of the cherry, plum, peach, or almond; the same 
number of parts will be found in each, and having the 
same position with regard to one another ; but in the pea 
the petals are of various forms, and so placed as to give 
the appearance of being irregular as compared with the 
cherry, or as an orchid is to a tulip or lily. 

Fertilization, and its Eesults. 

Whatever may be the form or number of parts in a 
flower, it must be admitted that they are intended by 
nature as aids in a process for accomplishing the final 
destiny or purpose of a flower, which is to generate, or- 
ganize, and perfect certain bodies containing the embryo 
of a future plant, called the seed. This object is attained 
by a process common to all flowers, viz. by one or 
more grains of pollen coming in contact with the stigma, 
which takes place either by the contiguity of the parts, by 
gravity, by motion of the air, or by what may be called 
mechanical aid, the agents in the latter case being chiefly 
insects ; or by the elastic spring of the stamens, as in the 

E 2 



52 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



barberry, Kalmia, and Stylidium; or by forcible discharge 
from the anther, as readily seen in pellitory and nettle, 
the pollen looking like puffs of smoke, giving the idea 
of a miniature cannonade. 

Flowers have been compared to public-house signs, 
inviting guests to a repast, the guests being the insects, 
and the viands pollen and honey. By the movement of 
the insect in the flower the pollen becomes dislodged 
from the anther and dispersed ; some of it comes in 
contact with the stigma, or by adhering to the insect, is 
carried by it to other flowers. In some cases it is 
necessary for the insect to be caught in the flower, which 
in Aristolochia is accomplished by the inside of the tube 
being beset with stiff hairs pointing downwards, like a 
mousetrap. This is more remarkable in the pretty 
orchid genus Pterostylis, the flower being in the form of 
a hood or cowl, open in front, from which hangs the part 
called the lahellum, in the form of a strap or tongue ; 
on this being touched by an insect entering, it imme- 
diately turns up like a flap and imprisons the intruder. 
In some of the Pea and Trumpet flower families. Snap- 
dragon, Monkey flower, and others, bees find it diffi- 
cult to enter, but have sufficient instinct to know that 
the honey lies at the bottom of the flower, and in order 
to obtain it they cut a hole in the side, thus leaving the 
pollen untouched. The viands, however, are not always 
pollen and honey ; in the remarkable flowers of Rafflesia, 
Stapelia, and Aristolochia, the bluebottle and other flies 
are attracted by their carrion-like odour, and even deposit 
their eggs in them. In many flowers, such as orchids 
and asclepiads, insects are indispensable for bringing the 
pollen in contact with the stigma. 

After having received the pollen, the stigma is said 



ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 



53 



to be fertilized, soon after wliich the calyx, corolla, and 
stamens generally wither and fall away. The ovary at 
this time contains one or more soft granular bodies, 
called ovules, being embryo seeds ; shortly after this 
the ovary begins to enlarge, increasiag in size until it 
arrives at maturity, when the plant is said to be in 
seed, or more properly in fruit, which is very various in 
form and structure. 

In order to insure fertilization, nature is profuse in 
the supply of pollen, the quantity used being infinitely 
small to that wasted. When corn and grass are in flower 
it floats in the air, and is supposed to be the cause of 
some diseases, especially " hay fever." In the Fir 
family it is produced in abundance, and in fir forest coun- 
tries is carried to a great distance, even to hundreds^ 
of miles, and on falling to the ground forms a yellow j 
crust like sulphur, which has given rise to the idea 
that it had rained brimstone ; such may be seen near 
fir trees in this country. 

From what has been stated, it may be presumed that 
the proximity of the stamens and pistil or pistils in her- 
maphrodite flowers is for the purpose of insuring 
fertilization. Mr. Darwin has, however, shown that such 
is not the case in all flowers ; experiments with the 
Primula, Lythrum, Linum, and passion-flower prove 
that the pollen is inert on the pistil of its own flower, 
but efi'ective in fertilizing the pistil of other flowers. In 
many plants, such as the grass of Parnassus, the stamens 
and pistils are not perfect at the same time, the pollen 
being shed long before the pistil is perfect ; in others, 
such as banana, it is the contrary, the pistiliferous 
flowers being early developed, and the ovary swelling 
long before the male flowers are free of their enclosing 



54 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



envelope. Similar instances in other plants have been 
recorded, and as the subject is of horticultural interest, it 
will be curious if it should be discovered that our good 
or indifferent crops of fruit are partly due to conditions 
favourable or unfavourable to the interchange of pollen 
in flowers. 

In whatever way fertilization may be performed, it is 
generally understood that no perfect seed can be produced 
without the action of pollen, of which Aucuha japonica 
affords a recent and striking example. This beautiful 
shrub has been grown in this country for above eighty 
years, and all being female plants, no fruit ever was pro- 
duced until 1863, when the male plant was introduced, 
and plants are now to be seen bearing abundance of 
beautiful red berries. But there is no rule without an 
exception, as several plants are recorded as producing 
perfect seeds without the intervention of pollen. The 
most remarkable instance of this is a holly-like leaved 
plant, native of Queensland, plants of which were intro- 
duced at Kew about forty years ago. They proved to 
be (three) female plants, belonging to the spurge family, 
and produced perfect seeds, from which young plants 
were raised similar to their parent. In 1838 I named 
this plant Coelebogyne ilicifolia, and a description with 
a figure having been published in the Transactions of the 
Linnean Society, it became an object of interest and 
discussion with the botanists of Europe, much having 
been written on the subject ; up to the present time 
all the plants in Europe continue to maintain their uni- 
sexual character, and no explanation has yet appeared 
to account for this deviation from the law of sexuality. 
Plants of it have recently been discovered in Queensland 
bearing abundance of male flowers, but this fact in no 



ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 



55 



way helps to explain the fertility of the female plants in 
Europe during the last forty years. 

This kind of propagation is called Parthenogenesis. 

Fruit, (h.fructus, G. carpos.) 

" Every tree in the which is the fruit of a tree yielding 
seed, unto you it shall be for meat." The practical ap- 
plication of this sentence implies that when fruit is the 
subject of common conversation, apples, pears, plums, 
cherries, peaches, &c. come before the mind; but in 
botany the word fruit has a very wide application, em- 
bracing all conditions of the part of a plant containing 
seeds, from the luscious peach to the dry spiny husks of 
the thorn-apple, and the chaff-like produce of the lettuce 
and carrot. The position and arrangement of the fruit is 
in accordance with the inflorescence, but although nature 
is generally profuse in flowers, perfect fruit is compa- 
ratively rare ; this is due to several causes — imperfect fer- 
tilization, the effect of climate, ravages of insects, and the 
like. 

Eruits present many varieties of form, being globose, 
cylindrical, angular, flat, spiral, &c. ; and in consistency 
are solid, hard, fleshy ; or dry, husky, thin, thick, or 
fibrous. In size they vary from less than a currant 
to a large pumpkin, 2 to 3 feet in diameter ; and from the 
caraway to the sashline-like snake gourd, 5 to 6 feet in 
length. Eruits are also smooth or rough, as in goose- 
grass; warty, as horse-chestnut; or ^ricfcty, as stramo- 
nium. When ripe they are of a pale brown, yellow, or 
red colour, some even black. 

The following are some of the principal names applied 
to fruits : — 

Poma, succulent fruit, as apple, pear, and orange. 



56 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Drupe, pulpy stone fruit, as plum, date, cherry, and 
peach. Pejpo, a term applied to cucumber, melon, gourd, 
and vegetable-marrow. Bacca, a berry, as gooseberry, 
currant, and grape. Legume, a two-valved pod, as pea 
and scarlet-runner. Follicle, a pod-like fruit, opening on 
one side, as pseony, aconite, and the whole of the Protese 
family (fig. 8,/). Siliqua and Silicula, a seed-pod of 
the cabbage tribe, cress, and shepherd's purse (fig. 8, g). 
Capsule, a dry fruit consisting of three or more parts 
called valves, as horse-chestnut and stramonium (fig. 8, c) ; 
Fig. 8. 




sometimes opening by pores on the apex, as in the 
poppy (fig. 8, a), or by an operculum or lid, as in the 
monkey-pot (Lecythis, fig. 8, b), and henbane (fig. 8, e). 
Dry drupe, as the cocoa-nut. Glans, a one or several 
seeded fruit contained in a cup or involucrum, as in oak, 
hazel-nut, beech, and sweet-chestnut. Samara, a one- 
seeded fruit, either seated in the centre of a thin mem- 
brane, or at one end, called winged, as in elm, ash, and 
maple. Achenium, a term applied to the fruit of the 
whole of the Composite and Umbel family, the fruits of 
which are generally called seeds ; they however consist 



ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 



57 



of an outer coat, within which is the true seed. Strohilus 
or cone, an imbricated scaly inflorescence, composed of 
hard bracts, seated round a central woody axis, bearing 
two or more naked seeds at their base, as in cedar of 
Lebanon, Scotch and spruce fir. Cone is also applied 
to the fruit of Banksia, which is formed of a spike of 
woody follicles that becomes solid and hardened. Gal- 
hulus, a fruit composed of thick fleshy scales, which be- 
come hardened and compact into one uniform, globose, 
smooth, plane or horned mass, as in juniper, cypress, and 
arbor-vitse. 

An ovary with its pistil is termed a carpel; when 
one or more in a flower and free, they are called apocar- 
pous (free), as in the ranunculus, larkspur, and pseony ; 
when united together, syncarpous, as in custard- apple, 
magnolia, strawberry, and raspberry ; in the mulberry, 
pine-apple, and screw-pine, a number of individual fruits 
(separate flowers) being united they are called compound. 

The fig is also a remarkable instance of a compound 
fruit ; it consists of a hollow conical receptacle attached 
by its narrowest end, having a small opening at its broad 
apex, its interior being lined with numerous apetalous 
florets, containing stamens and pistils which ultimately 
produce small grains, the true fruit of the fig. 

Fruits are either one or many celled ; when the seeds 
are all contained in a single compartment, as in the Pea 
family, it is called unilocular (one-celled). On cutting 
an apple across, the seeds will be seen lying in five cells 
radiating from a centre to which the seeds are attached ; 
it is hence called multilocular (many-celled). The orange 
is also divided in the same manner into cells filled with 
pulp, amongst which the seeds lie embedded. 

Pericarp is a general term for the outer covering, rind, 



58 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



or skin of all fruits, and dehiscence for the manner in 
■which fruits burst or open and discharge their seeds. 
Many fruits are indehiscent (not opening), such as plum 
and gooseberry, which fall to the ground and rot. 

Fructification is a term applied to the reproductive 
parts of the flower, but more especially to plants in fruit. 

Seeds. (L. semenj G. sperma.) 

On opening a pea-pod the seeds will be seen attached 
to the pod by a short cord rising from the eye of the pea, 
called the funiculus, or umbilical cord, which when ripe 
separates, and a mark or scar is seen, called the hihim 
or eye of the pea, as the black scar in the bean and 
white scar in the scarlet-runner. Seeds vary as much in 
size and form as fruits, the poppy and horse-chestnut 
being familiar examples. Some tropical trees, such as 
Carapa and Mora, have seeds as large as a good sized 
apple, but are far exceeded by the double cocoa-nut, 
which often weighs from 30 to 40 lbs. The smooth 
bright seeds of Princess feather and flax present a strong 
contrast to the rough and unshapely ones of Martynia 
prohoscidea, which is a black hard body with two long 
horn-like hooks, having more the appearance of a stag- 
beetle than the seed of a plant. 

Hitherto I have spoken of the exterior appearance, 
called the coat or covering ; it is now necessary to notice 
the interior. The substance that forms the bulk of a 
seed, with the position and direction of the embryo, and 
its manner of germination, presents many curious pheno- 
mena, which are too numerous to be mentioned. It is 
sufficient to state that seeds in general are furnished with 
two skins or coats, called the integument, for protecting 
the ovule and embryo, being analogous to the shell and 



ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION. 



59 



inner skin of an egg ; but in tlie fir and cycad families 
the ovule is destitute of a seed coat, hence these plants 
are called gymnosperms, that is, naked seeds. The ovule 
contains the embryo only, or it consists of soft or hard 
matter called albumen, with the embryo embedded in it. 
This matter is homogeneous, and abounds in wheat and 
barley, becoming the farinaceous part, as flour and all 
corn meals ; it is also plentiful in palms, as for example 
the white of the cocoa-nut. Its presence or absence 
characterizes many natural families. Seeds containing 
it are called albuminous, and those without it exalbu- 
minous; the pea and bean are examples of the latter, the 
part eaten being the seed leaves of the embryo. 

Germination of Seed and Young Plant. — I have now 
described the principal forms of the various parts of a 
plant, from the root upwards to the perfect seed, within 
which by the power of nature's act, an embryo or germ, 
endowed with the vital principle of vegetable life, has 
been generated, so that on the seed falling to the earth 
and becoming influenced by heat and moisture, the vital 
power of the embryo is excited, and immediately com- 
mences the growth of a plant like unto its parent. 

In order to observe the process of germination, place a 
few seeds of corn, onion, radish, mustard, pea, bean, &c., 
in a shallow vessel on wet brown paper, or other substance 
retentive of moisture, covering them with the same kind 
of material, and placing them in a moderately warm place 
in the dark. After a short time a change will take place, 
being first apparent by the swelling of the seeds. In the 
pea and bean the coat bursts, and two lobes are seen to 
open, and at their base or point of union is seated a small 
body called the plumule (the embryo bud of the future 
plant), which lengthens upwards and forms the stem ; 



60 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



a root called the radicle is also produced downwards, tlie 
two lobes being cotyledons. 

In palms, cycads, grasses, lilies, &c., a wbite point or 
teat is first seen to protrude, which, in ordinary seeds, is 
short, but in palms lengthens from one to several inches, 
or as in the double cocoa-nut, even to two feet in length ; 
be this short or long, it is called the cotyledon, and con- 
tains the plumule. In time its apex opens by a pore, 
slit, or cleft, from which issues a green leaf, as also a 
little rootlet {radicle), forming the basis of the future 
plant, other leaves being successively produced. The 
former of these modes of germination is called dicotyle- 
donous (fig. 13, a), that is, having two seed lobes; the 
latter monocotyledonous (fig. II, a), with one seed lobe. 

The cotyledons vary greatly in size, form, and texture^ 
in different plants ; in the radish and cucumber they are 
thin and green, being more leaf-like than in the bean. 
The common mustard and cress afford a good example, 
the part eaten as salad being the cotyledons, between 
which the plumule is seen to arise to form the plant. 
In the pea, bean, and horse-chestnut, they are thick and 
fleshy. In general the cotyledons soon give up their 
functions, and wither; but in the genus Streptocarpus, a 
South African plant, with flowers like a Gloxinia, and the 
remarkable Welivitschia mii'abUis, they increase in size, 
in the former becoming quite a natural-looking leaf, six 
or more inches in length, in the latter, more remarkable, 
attaining the length of four or more feet ; in both cases 
they perform the functions of leaves. 

In some dicotyledonous plants the seed lobes are so 
closely united (connate) or consolidated, as in the Indian 
cress, that they appear as one. In thick-skinned seeds, 
such as acorn, sweet chestnut, and many of the Pea 



ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE AND VITALITY. 61 



family, the coat of the seed remains entire, thus prevent- 
ing the expansion of the cotyledons ; in such cases the 
plumule is protruded in a manner analogous to mono- 
cotyledons, the acorn remaining entire long after the 
young plant has become established. 

The embryo of all flowering plants partakes of one of 
the above characters, and hence come two grand divisions 
of the vegetable kingdom — Monocotyledons and Dico- 
tyledons. Plants produced from these two kinds of 
seeds are readily known by the structure of their stems, 
and veins of their leaves, which will now be described. 

III. ANATOMICAL STRUCT UEE AND VITALITY. 

CONSTRQCTION. 

When examined by the aid of the microscope, the sub- 



FiG. 9. 




stance of which plants are composed is found to consist 
of what is called cellular and vascidar tissue. The 
former is a conglomeration of thin membranous vesicles, 
united to one another, forming cells hke those seen 
in wheaten bread (fig. 9, a), endowed with the power of 
producing their like, and by that means increasing 
the bulk of the plant. The normal form may be con- 



62 



DOMESTIC BOTANT. 



sidered spherical, but by equal pressure on one another 
the section represents a hexagon, which however as- 
sumes various forms in different plants. These are the 
elementary organs or simplest condition of vegetable 
structure, and known as cellular tissue. Vascular tissue 
consists of membranous tubes of various kinds, lying 
embedded in a vertical direction in the cellular tissue. 
They either taper to each end, or terminate abruptly ; 
some enclosing a closely coiled spiral thread, called spiral 
vessels (fig. 9, h), which may readily be seen on gently 
tearing asunder the stalk of many plants, such as rhu- 
barb, the young shoots of elder, footstalks of strawberry 
leaves, and many bulbs. Ducts are other kinds of tubes, 
transversely marked with rings or bars, but do not un- 
coil. Woody tissue, or fibre, consists of slender tubes 
in bundles, narrowing at both ends. In the Fir family 
it is perforated with pores called glandular tissue. Many 
other curious forms of vessels are found in plants, all 
affording great scope for microscopic investigation^ 
of the nature of which, and the part they act in the life 
of a plant, there are various opinions. Knowing that 
such is the plan of construction, the microscope is not at 
first necessary to the amateur student for his practical 
study of outer forms. 

Erom what has been stated above, it will be seen that 
the structure of plants consists of simple cells only, or of 
cells and tubular vessels combined ; the first compre- 
hends cellular plants; or Cryptogams (flowerless), con- 
sisting of the whole of the plants in the twenty-fourth 
class of Linnseus — viz., mosses, ferns, lichens, algae, 
and fungi. These are the lowest types of vegetable 
life, having no visible stamens, pistil, or true seed, 
their reproduction being by what is called spores. 



ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE AND VITALITY. 



63 



The second are called vascular plants (from vas, a 
tube), or Phcenogams, and include all flowering plants, 
■which hold the highest rank in the vegetable king- 
dom, having flowers with stamens, pistil, and perfect 
seed. 

According to Dr. Lindley's "Vegetable Kingdom," 
published in 1853, above 92,000 species of plants were 
said to be known to botanists ; but by new discoveries 
since then the number may now be calculated at not 
less than 100,000, of which 15,000 may be set down as 
cellular or flowerless, and 85,000 as vascular or flower- 
ing plants. It is the latter we have now to consider, 
and the mode of classifying them into families ; they 
present important distinctive characters, dividing them 
into two great divisions, which are readily distinguish- 
able from each other in three ways : — First, by the seed ; 
secondly, by the mode of thickening of the stem ; thirdly, 
by the leaves. 

The mode of formation and increase in the size of the 
stem takes place in two distinct ways : — First, by a suc- 
cessive formation of cellular, vascular, and woody tissue, 
round a central axis called the pith, and is of two kinds 
— the inner being the solid or woody part of the tree, 
the outer, less solid, called the lark. Between the bark 
and the wood successive annual layers of new structure 
are deposited in the form of concentric, solid, erect 
cones, each cone answering to a year's growth, and 
are well marked in transverse and vertical sections of many 
trees, especially of the Fir family. From the centre or 
pith proceed erect, thin plates in the form of rays, which 
unite with the annular circles of increase, proceeding on 
to the bark, and are called medullary rays. In a trans- 
verse section, they appear like spokes passing through a 



64 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



number of concentric wheels. This mode of structure is 
termed exogenous (growing outward), and is the result of 
all seeds having two seed-leaves; it is further well 
marked by the veins of the leaves being connected toge- 
ther in irregular meshes like network, as may be seen in 
all trees and shrubs, as well as most herbaceous plants 
in the open air in this country (fig. 13, a, c), the ex- 
ceptions being the Fir and Yew families, which have free 
veins. 

Although many plants with reticulated leaves have no 
apparent stem, the bud or crown (gemmae-corm) from 
which the leaves spring, is formed on the principle of 
outward extension, such being the case with many 
herbs. 

The second mode of stem-formation is the reverse of 
that above described, the increase taking place by succes- 
sive development of leaves on the apex of an axis which 
increases in length. In this case, there is no distinction be- 
tween bark and wood, consequently no concentric rings, a 
vertical section showing the increase of new matter to be 
from the base of the leaves inwards, the whole being homo- 
geneous. The consequence is, that most tree stems of this 
division maintain a cylindrical form throughout, increas- 
ing but little in diameter, that which takes place being due 
to the outward pressure of additional new matter forming 
in the interior. In some aloes and scandent palms no in- 
crease takes place, even although (as in the latter) grow- 
ing to one hundred or more feet in length. This mode 
of structure is termed endogenous (growing within), and is 
the result of all seeds having one seed-leaf ; the structure 
of the true leaves is also quite distinct from that of 
the preceding in the veins not being reticulated, but 
rising from the base of the leaf, running parallel towards 



ANATOMICAL STRUCTUKE AND VITALITY. 65 

the apex, as may readily be seen in the Lily, Iris, and 
Grass families* (fig. 11, a, b, c, d) ; or they diverge 
from each other or from a midrib, as in palms, banana, 
cycad, screw pine, travellers' tree, strelitzia, dragons- 
blood tree, aloes, yuccas, Australian grass trees, and 
several arborescent species of the pineapple, all having 
firm tree-like stems. 

Besides this characteristic tree structure of endogens, 
a considerable number of plants of the same division are 
stemless, their leaves being developed from a bud or 
crown, which never rises more than a few inches, or 
scarce a foot above the surface of the ground. This kind 
of crown or stem varies much in its nature, in many 
grasses being quite undefined or rudimentary only. 

In the bulbous section of the Lily family, it consists 
of a small thin disc which is the base of the bulb, and 
produces roots from its under side, the body of the bulb 
being formed of the broad bases (j)etioles) of the leaves 
which overlap each other, forming what is called a tuni- 
cate, or coated bulb, through the centre of which the 
flower stem rises ; the onion and hyacinth are good ex- 
amples. 

From the oni(m we pass to the leek, the bases of the 
leaves of which being long, overlap by their lengthened 
edges, and thus form an apparent stem. This mode of 
structure is also characteristic of the Banana {Musa) ; 
and although M. Ensete has a stem seven to eight feet 
in girth, and as much in height, it cannot be viewed 
otherwise than a gigantic leek {Phyllacorm) . 

From what has been stated regarding the structure of 
exogens and endogens, it may be ascertained by examin- 



* The Sarsaparilla, Yam, and Arum Families are exceptions* 
P 



66 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



ing the leaves of any flowering plant to which of the two 
divisions it belongs. But in all systems of plant classi- 
fication there are many exceptions to the general rule ; 
in the present case the Yam and Sarsaparilla families, 
hold an intermediate position between exogens and 
endogens, being bramble-like, leafy shrubs, with reti- 
culated veins, but connected with endogens by having 
only one cotyledon. 

Sap and Secretions of Plants. — All parts of a plant 
contain a fluid called sap, which, like the circulation of 
blood in animal life, maintains the vital action of vege- 
table life ; its colour and nature diff'er considerably in 
various plants. In the birch, maple, and vine it is clear 
and limpid ; in poppy, euphorbia. India-rubber, and cow 
trees it is white, like milk ; in celandine and gamboge 
tree, yellow ; in the blood-tree of Norfolk Island, red ; in 
aloes and terebinths, green, and becoming black or purple 
when exposed to the air. Its constituents furnish pro- 
ducts of great importance, as sugar, opium, India-rubber, 
gutta-percha, turpentine, gums, &c., which are obtained 
either by natural exudation, pressure, distillation, or by 
incisions. In the latter case the sap runs out, and may 
be considered analogous to bleeding, and although this 
process is periodically repeated in many trees, yet they 
do not appear to suffer from the loss, being again re- 
plenished. 

Much has been written on the flow of the sap, and 
curious phenomena have been observed ; but here it must 
suffice to explain only its presumed mode of action. 
Take for example all trees that shed their leaves in 
autumn, as the plane, elm, lime, &c. ; in winter they may 
be compared to dormant animals, which on the increasing- 
warmth of spring start into active life. The sun, by 



ANATOMICAL STKUCTURE AND VITALITY. 67 

heating the stem and branches expands the sap, the buds 
swell and the leaves unfold, the roots at the same time 
perform their duty by producing young spo7igioles that 
absorb fluid which by the vital action of the plant 
is carried up through the cellular and vascular body of 
the tree, enters the leaves (plant lungs), and through 
the stomata comes in contact with and absorbs the 
constituents of the atmosphere, forming fibre-sap. It 
is then carried downwards through the vessels of the 
inner bark, in its course depositing a soft matter called 
cambium between the bark and wood of the tree which 
solidifies and becomes new wood, thus marking the yearly 
growth of exogenous trees. The bark also assimilates 
its constituent elements, according to the nature of the 
plant. In many plants, such as the family to which the 
Marvel of Peru and evening primrose belong, the roots 
of orchids, succulent mesembryanthemums, and stalks of 
rhubarb, bundles of needle-like bodies are dispersed 
throughout the cellular structure called raphides ; in 
some species of cactus they are extremely abundant, and 
in form like grains of sand, which are insoluble in water. 
They consist chiefly of phosphate of lime, but their use 
in the life of the plant is not well ascertained. That the 
sap has a general periodic ascent and descent is manifest, 
but the microscope shows that a local circulation goes on 
independent of the movement of the sap upwards and 
downwards. One kind especially observed in milky 
plants, is in vessels difi'ering from the usual tubular ones 
in being branched and anastomosing to each other ; they 
are called laticiferous vessels, and the milky granules 
seen circulating, latex. This being difiicult to observe, 
it is not known if it is common to plants in general, but 
by the aid of a powerful microscope it may be seen in the 

f2 



68 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



stipules of India-rubber and other fig trees. Sap circu- 
lation is however readily observed in the jointed stems 
of limeworts (chara), the jointed hairs of the stamens of 
Virginian spiderwort, the spongial roots of frog-bit, and 
in the leaves of the Valisneria spiralis, Potamogeton, and 
other water plants. In the first three each joint has its 
own circulation, which is easily seen by loose globules 
of chlorophyll being moved by the current, thus form- 
ing an interesting spectacle. Although the portion 
examined is removed from the living plant, the cir- 
culation nevertheless continues ; and if a small branch 
of chara is placed under favourable circumstances (in a 
vial, for instance) new joints will be seen to form, and 
it becomes a plant. It may therefore be supposed that 
a plant consists of a multitude of independent organisms, 
which as a whole unite and contribute to its welfare; but 
each on being separated is endowed with the vital power 
of becoming a plant, as, for instance, a twig, a small bit 
of wood with its bark, a bud, a leaf, portion of a leaf or 
root, are well known to gardeners as the means for pro- 
pagating plants. Thus plants have the advantage over 
animals, and although they have not the power of moving 
from place to place, yet on considering what has been 
stated of them in the preceding pages as regards their 
growth, organs, and functions, their analogy to animals 
is evident. From many circumstances they are not de- 
void of knowing what is necessary for their good ; they 
fatten when well fed, the roots of trees find their way to 
water and new soil, the aerial roots of orchids and aroids 
direct their course to the nearest surface; and it has been 
observed in hothouses, when hung near a moist surface, 
they take a horizontal direction, even forming a right 
angle. Twining plants or tendrils also direct their course 



ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE AND VITALITr. 69 



towards the nearest prop or twig. In some cases they 
are even furnished with mechanical means to obtain food, 
for besides the curious insect traps and flowers described 
at page 52, similar ones are provided in the leaves of 
other plants, but in this case the entrapped insects appear 
to be designed for the nourishment of the plant; the most 
special instances are the Pitcher-leaf family and Venus 
fly-traps, which see. 

Motion of Plants. — Many plants are sensible of light 
and darkness; various flowers, such as the red pimpernel 
and daisy shutting up in the afternoon, and the evening 
primrose opening in the evening. Leaves also collapse / 
and droop in the evening, as in the Clover and Pea family, / 
being called the sleep of plants. This is not, however, 
in all cases consequent on darkness ; motion is sufficient 
to put to sleep the Humble and Sensitive plants, the | 
least touch of the finger causing them to collapse and j 
droop, thus seeming to shrink from danger, expanding 
again when it is past. This curious phenomenon sug- 
gests that plants have a nervous system, being of a 
highly sensitive nature. In the Humble plant, the 
least harsh movement or injury to a leaflet or any part 
is sympathetically transmitted throughout its whole 
system. Other plants with jointed leaves show their 
sensibility, and much has been written on the subject, 
but it is too extensive to discuss here. These move- 
ments may be considered consequent on mechanical force 
and darkness, difi'ering from the voluntary motion of the 
moving plant Hcdysarum gyrans, which will be noticed 
under its family. 

Struggle for Life. — Many plants are capable of retain- 
ing life for a considerable period, even after being de- 
prived of roots and leaves, which under favourable condi- 



70 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



tions are again reproduced, especially in succulent plants 
and cycas. A remarkable instance is known of long 
quiescence in a large Echinocactus, which by accident 
lost its centre growth, and after nineteen years, without 
apparent change, put forth young plants round the injured 
centre ; also a plant of Geranium Biwmanni, after re- 
maining four years almost in a dry state, again put forth 
leaves ; and specimens of Leicesia rediviva, after being 
two years in the herbarium, have been planted and have 
produced flowers. 

Although many plants are dependent on others for 
their habitation, they nevertheless pay no respect to one 
another; the plebeian groundsel and humble daisy being 
in themselves as consequential in the position nature has 
assigned them as the princely palm and mighty gum 
tree. As with man and animals, they war each against 
their neighbour ; the strong takes possession of the do- 
main of the weak, or the weak by degrees overcomes the 
strong; the slow but sure ivy weaving the winding-sheet 
of the mighty oak ; while the more humble but insi- 
dious white clover, knot and couch grass, dandelion, and 
other European weed plants, displace others which seem 
more powerful than themselves, as now witnessed in New 
Zealand, South Africa, and New South Wales. 

Nature has furnished plants with the means of increas- 
ing and multiplying by producing superabundance of seed, 
which, falling on " good ground," and being left unmo- 
lested, produces its hundred-fold. This combined with the 
tenacity of life possessed by many plants assists in main- 
taining their position on the earth, so that if left unmo- 
lested they assiduously perform the duties assigned to them 
according to nature, living their appointed time, some only 
for a few hours (as in many cryptogams), and others hun- 



CLASSIFICATION. 



71 



dreds, and even thousands of years, as in the case of the 
great dragon tree of Oratava, which has lately paid the debt 
of nature common to animal and plant life. After having 
withstood the vicissitudes of five thousand years, it was 
blown down by a storm in September, 1867. Man and' 
animals have the power and instinct to fly from threatened i 
danger, but plants cannot help themselves. Therefore,' 
from their aggression upon each other, the limited area 
occupied by some species, the prey they are to animals, to 
the hand of man, forest fires, the elements of the atmo- 
sphere and natural convulsions of the earth, many species 
become extinct, of which known instances have occurred 
within the last hundred years. 

IV. CLASSIFICATION. 

Every plant that differs from another, whose seed is 
in itself after his kind," is called a species, being an 
organized structure endowed with an essence or quality 
peculiar to itself, and possessing the power of multiplying 
and transmitting its type and qualities without change, 
from generation to generation. That such is, and has 
been, through all historic periods the law by which 
nature perpetuates the different forms of plants upon the 
earth under ordinary life, is evident from the remains 
of plants of past ages agreeing with the present race. 
For instance, our cultivated corn and fodder plants are 
the same as those cultivated in the time of the Pharaohs. 
The remains of flax and hemp fibre, wheat, barley, and 
apples which have recently been discovered in the deposits 
of the lake cities of Switzerland, point to the same con- 
clusion ; while the flint implements found with them seem 
to give them a date anterior to Egyptian record. 



72 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



It is, however, known that on plants of near relation- 
ship coming into contiguity, they, like the different races 
of mankind, commingle and produce intermediate forms, 
which in many cases assume permanency. If their history 
were unknown they might be viewed as original species, 
but to all such forms the term hybrid^ is applied. 

Many plants presumed to be representatives of one 
species often present different appearances, such as some 
being tall, others dwarfish, or with variously formed leaves, 
as broad, narrow, smooth, hairy, variegated, &c. Such dif- 
ferences, called varieties, are mainly due to the situation 
and nature of the climate and soil in which they grow, but 
in the course of ages become inherent in their constitu- 
tion. Thus the towering tree of the forest may be seen 
on the rocky cliff as a dwarf shrub, being in that form 
as much at home there as its congener in the richest 
forest land. The birch, oak, fir, &c., are examples in this 
country. In New Zealand and Terra- del-fuego, the lofty 
trees of the plains are represented in elevated regions in 
the form of low bushy shrubs. But those species that 
have long been under the fostering care of man, have by 
art and cultivation entirely changed their original nature, 
and by such means our best wheat, fruits, vegetables, and 
showy flowers have been obtained. 

In many garden plants the varieties are so numerous 
that the original parent cannot be traced. In other 
cases, parts of the same plants are so different from each 
other, that, when separated unknown to the botanist, 
they have been described as distinct species. This, with 
the differences brought about by climate, and the in- 



* Tor particulars on this point, see Darwin's work on " Animals 
and Plants under Domestication." 



CLASSIFICATION. 



73 



crease of hybrids, has led to a great number of plants 
beiog described in books as distinct species which, in 
reality, are not so. Without practical observation, there- 
fore, it is impossible, in many cases, to arrive at any 
satisfactory conclusion from herbarium specimens alone, 
as to whether they are distinct species or varieties. The 
practical cultivator often differs from the scientific 
botanist, as in living specimens he sees characters, that 
are indistinct or entirely disappear in the herbarium ; 
these differences being permanent, and becoming fami- 
liar to the eye, he feels himself justified in consider- 
ing the plants distinct species. On taking a general 
view of what is supposed to characterize species, it may 
be said to be beyond human power to ascertain whether 
the serial gradations of form are genuine descendants of 
original creation, or only deviations from one original, 
brought about during the lapse of ages by the different 
climatic and local influences. 

Whatever may be the number of species in a genus, 
each is designated by a special name, called the trivial 
name, as explained at page 8, and which is derived from 
various sources, the greater number being either a Greek 
or Latin word, denoting the form, colour, or property of 
some part, or organ, or special quality of the plant, 
such as angustifolia and latifolia, for broad and narrow 
leaf; pauciflora andmultiflora, for fewand many flowered; 
edule and toxicaria, for edible and poisonous, &c. Their ^ 
native country and place of growth also give names to 
many, as Trollius europceus, T. caucasicus, T. america- 
niis, and T. asiaticiis ; the words montana, jpratensis, 
aquaticiis, &c., denoting whether growing in mountain, 
meadow, or water. Many bear the names of persons, 
the termination distinguishing the reason; thus, Cun- 



74 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



ninghami after the discoverer ; Cunninghamii after the 
first describer ; Lambertiana in honour of. When named 
in honour of a lady, the termination is (2, as Walkerse. 
Many are also derived from native vernacular names of 
unknown meaning. 

When the flower and fruit of two or more naturally 
allied species agree in number and position of the diff'e- 
rent parts, they are said to belong to the same genus, to 
which a special name is given : thus, the apple, pear, and 
quince are distinct species of the genus called Pyrus ; 
cherry, plum, and apricot, of Primus ; gooseberry, red 
and black currant, of Bibes ; onion, leek, and garlic, of 
Allium; orange, white, and tiger lily, of Lilium, Mains 
being the specific name of the apple, it is therefore 
called Pyrus Malus ; pear, Pyrus communis ; plum, 
Prunus domestica ; black currant, Ribes nigrum ; and 
the white lily, Lilium candidum, &c. 

These are sufi&cient examples to show the use of 
generic and specific names, as invented by Linnseus. 

Of generic names, the greater number are a compound 
of two Greek words, such as Ch7ysanthemum — chrysos, 
gold; anthemon, a flower — golden flower. Others are 
derived from the names of persons, with the addition of 
a Latin termination, as Banksia, in honour of Sir Joseph 
Banks. The remainder are from various sources, as 
local aboriginal names and Heathen mythology; many 
^ of doubtful and unknown origin and unmeaning applica- 
tion have been given by the most learned botanists, 
which in course of time become familiar, the names being 
pronounced without any idea of their derivation or 
meaning. 

The number of species in each genus varies greatly. 
A genus in fact, has no definite limit in nature, and 



CLASSIFICATION. 



75 



botanists are as much at variance respecting the cha- 
racter that should constitute a genus, as they are with 
regard to distinction of species. Some multiply genera 
and species — the former by excessive subdivision ; the 
latter by raising every distinct variety to the rank of a 
species. Others reduce the number by including more 
species in a genus, and regarding the less important 
varieties as belonging to the same species. This diffe- 
rence is a source of great perplexity to beginners. The 
latter plan, as adopted by Mr. Bentham in his excellent 
" Handbook of the British Flora," is much to be pre- 
ferred for its greater simplicity. 

The botanist who describes and names plants is called 
the authority for the name ; and it is a rule to affix after 
the botanical name the abbreviated name of the author. 
Thus, Solanum tuberosum, Linn. ; Araucaria excelsa. 
Ait. ; Fuchsia gracilis, Lindl. ; Hoy a carnosa, E. Br. : 
these names being given by Linnaeus, Alton, Lindley, 
and Kobert Brown. This is necessary on account of the 
various names, often very numerous, which have been 
given to the same plant by different botanists, to unravel 
which forms a great part of the study of scientific 
botany. In the following pages authorities are dispensed 
with, as without a general index for the names of bota- 
nists, the abbreviations only serve to perplex the amateur 
student. 

It has been shown that one or more species constitute 
a genus ; the next point is to classify the genera into 
natural alliances, tribes, and families, by associating to- 
gether genera that agree in certain particulars, as general 
habit, mode of growth, structure, and qualities, the name 
of the leading or typical genus being generally selected 
as the name of the family. Thus the one to which Ranun- 



76 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



cuius belongs is called Ranunculacece. In general, most 
names of families terminate in acecs ; but those derived 
from some special character of the whole family terminate 
in ce, as Crucifem, Leguminosece, &c. 

To assist in popularizing the natural system, Dr. 
Lindley has in his " Vegetable Kingdom" given English 
names to the families, and in doing so has, as far as 
possible, adopted the original popular names by which 
the leading species of families are known. Many British 
plants are known by the familiar names of Worts, which 
is generally gonsidered to imply soft weedy herbs, as 
rag-wort, mug-wort, soap-wort, &c. Several of these 
words have been adopted as the English names to the 
families they belong to. Dr. Lindley however, does not 
restrict this term to weedy plants, as he applies it freely 
to trees and shrubs, such as elm-worts, the Elm tree 
family ; birch- worts, the Birch tree family ; apple- 
worts, the Apple tree family: also to exotics, as citron- 
worts, the Orange ti'ee family ; sandal-worts, the San- 
dal wood family ; Napoleon-worts ; the latter being 
represented by a tree of peculiar character. To these, as 
well as to many others, the word Wort does not appear 
very appropriate. But for many families possessing no 
special features, either in name, character, or properties, 
no suitable English name can be devised. To meet this, 
he changes the termination of the scientific name, thus 
imparting to it an English reading : for example, Mag- 
noliacese, Magnolads ; Menispermaceae, Menispermads ; 
Iridaceee, Irads. Even families with good English names 
may be called ads ; thus the Lily family, Lilyads ; the 
Primrose family, Primulads, &c. 

From these names it is common to form adjectives, by 
changing the termination to ous: thus the family 



CLASSIFICATION. 



77 



Umbelliferae are called Umbelliferous plants ; Cruciferse, 
Cruciferous plants ; and Coniferse, Coniferous trees. In 
noting individual species, as parsley, it is called an um- 
helliferous herb ; the raspberry, a rosaceous shrub ; and 
the elm, an ulmaceous tree. 

Many families consist of only one or two species, 
generally having special characters which render it diffi- 
cult to determine their relationship. Some writers view 
all such as surviving forms of series, the intermediate 
links of which have in the progress of ages become ex- 
tinct. To judge them by the Darwinian theory of na- 
tural selection, they appear rather to represent special 
advanced centres, from which intermediate forms yet re- 
main to be developed, as explained at page 78. 

Considering that the Vegetable Kingdom consists of 
about 100,000 species, the difficulty of classifying such 
an immense host must be evident ; but towards this 
modern investigation has done much. It is only neces- 
sary for me now to give an account of the Linnsean and 
natural systems, of which the following is a general 
outline. 



CONSPECTUS OF THE LINN.EAN SYSTEM. 

The names of the classes and orders are a compound 
of two Greek words ; thus, Monandria, mono, one ; andria, 
man, the stamens. Monogynia, mono, one ; gyne, woman^ 
the pistils. The first thirteen classes are founded on the 
number of stamens, and the order on the number of 
pistils. 

* Stamens free. 
Class I. — MONANDBIA. Flowers with one stamen. 



78 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Order. — Monogynia. One pistil. Ex. Indian 

shot, marestail. 
Order. — 'Digynia. Tioo pistils. Ex. Water starwort. 
Class II. — DIANDRIA. Flowers with two stamens. 
Order. — Monogynia. Ex. Privet, lilac, phillyrea, 

jasmine. 

Class III. — TRIANDRIA. Flowers with three sta- 
mens. 

Order. — Monogynia. Ex. Valerian, crocus, corn 
flag. 

Order. — Digynia. Ex. Wheat, and most of the 
grasses. 

Class IV. — TETRAWDRIA. Flowers ivithfour sta- 
mens. 

Order. — Monogynia. Ex. Scahious, woodroof, and 

nearly the whole of the Protea family. 
Order. — Tetragynia. Ex. Holly. 
Class V. — PENTANDRIA. Floivers loith five sta- 
mens. 

Order. — Monogynia. Ex. Forget-me-not, borage, 
potato, primrose, cyclamen, pimpernel. 

Order. — Digynia. Ex. Swallow-wort, gentian, and 
the whole of the Umbel family. 

Order. — Trigynia. Ex. Elder, laurestinus, tama- 
risk, sumach. 

Order. — Tetragynia. Ex. Grass of Parnassus. 

Order. — Pentagynia. Ex. Flax, sundew, thrift. 
Class VI. — HEXANDRIA. Floivers with six sta- 
mens. 

Order. — Monogynia. Ex. Snowdrop, dajfiPodil, hya- 
cinth, lily, aloe. 
Order. — Trigynia. Ex. Colchicum, dock. 
Order. — Polygynia. Ex. Water plantain. 



CONSPECTUS OF THE LINN^AN SYSTEM OF BOTANY. 79 

Class YII. — HEPTANDRIA. Floivers with seven 
stamens. 

Order. — Monogynia. Ex. Horse-chestnut. 
Class VIII. — OCTANDRIA. Flowers loith eight 
stamens. 

Order. — Monogynia. Ex. Evening primrose, 
fuchsia. 

Order. — Trigynia. Ex. Buck wheat. 
Class IX.— ENNEANDRIA. Floivers with nine 
stamens. 

Order. — Monogynia. Ex. Sweet bay. 
Order. — Trigynia. Ex. Rhubarb. 
Order. — Hexagynia. Ex. Flowering rush. 
Class X. — DECANDRIA. Floivers with ten stamens. 
Order. — Monogynia. Ex. Rue, rhododendron, 

strawberry tree. 
Order. — Digynia. Ex. Saxifrage, pink (single 

flowers), soap-wort. 
Order. — Trigynia. Ex. Corn campion, catchfly. 
Order. — Pentagynia. Ex. Stonecrop, lychnis. 
Class XI. — DODECANDRIA. Flowers with eleven 
to twelve stamens. 

Order. — Monogynia. Ex. Lythrum. 
Order. — Digynia. Ex. Agrimony. 
Order. — Trigynia. Ex. Mignonette. 
Order. — Dodecagynia. Ex. House-leek. 
Class XII. — ICOSANDRIA. Flowers with more than 
twelve, or tiventy or more stamens attached to the calyx. 
Order. — Monogynia. Ex. Cactus, syringa, myrtle, 

peach, apricot, plum, cherry. 
Order. — Di- Pentagynia. Ex. Medlar, hawthorn, 
apple. 

Order. — Polygynia. Ex. Strawberry, rose. 



80 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Class XIII. — POLYANDRIA. Flowers with nume- 
rous stamens, not attached to the calyx, generally seated 
heloiv the ovary. 

Order. — Monogynia. Ex. Celandine, water-lily, 

gum cistus. 
Order. — Digynia. Ex. Pseony. 
Order. — Trigynia. Ex. Larkspur, monkshood. 
Order. — ^Pentagynia. Ex. Columbine. 
Order. — Polygynia. Ex. Magnolia, anemone, vir- 
gin's bower, ranunculus. 
Class XIV. — DIDYNAMIA (dis, twice ; dunamis, 
power). Flowers with four stamens, ttvo short and tivo 
long ; the meaning being the superiority of two. 

Order. — Gymnosperma [gymnos, naked, s^er- 
ma, seed). Seeds naked, not enclosed. Ex. 
Thyme, hyssop, lavender, and nearly the whole 
of the mint family. 
Order. — Angiosperma (aggeion, a vessel, sperma, 
seed). The seeds enclosed in a seed vessel. 
Ex. Foxglove, monkey flower, verbena. 
Class XV.— TETRADYNAMIA {tetra, four ; duna- 
mis, power ; the superiority of four). Flowers with six 
stamens, four long and two short. 

Orders. — Siliculosa and Siliquosa. The seed pods 
diifering only as regards length. Ex. Wall- 
flower, stock, lady's-smock, and the whole of 
the Cabbage family. This is a perfect natural 
class. 

Stamens united. 
Class XVI. — MONADELPHIA (monos, one, adel- 
phos, brother). Flowers with stamens united in one body. 
Order. — Triandria. Ex. Tiger flower (Tigridia). 
Order. — Pentandria. Ex. Passion flower. 



CONSPECTUS OF THE LINN.EAN SYSTEM OF BOTANY. 81 

Order. — Heptandria. Ex. Pelargonium. 

Order. — Deeandria. Ex. Geranium. This class 

also coutains a great number of genera belonging 

to the Pea family. 
Order. — Polyandria. Ex. Mallow, hollyhock. 

Class XVII.— DIADELPHIA (dis, twice, adelpho, 
a brother). Flowers with stamens in tivo bundles. 
Order. — Hexandria. Ex. Fumitory. 
Order. — Octandria. Ex. Milkwort. 
Order. — Deeandria. Nine stamens united, and 
one free. Ex. Liquorice, French honeysuckle, 
pea, kidney bean. 

Class XVIII.— POLY ADELPHI A (j^olys, many, 
adelphos, a brother). Flowers with stamens collected in 
several bundles. 

Order. — Polyandria. Ex. St. John's wort, 
orange. 

Class XIX.— SYNG-ENESIA (syn, ucion). Flowers 
ivith Jive stamens united by their anthers. 

Order. — -Equalis. Flowers compound, consisting 
of many florets, all hermaphrodite. Ex. Sow- 
thistle, lettuce, dandelion, thistle. 

Order. — Superflua. Florets of disk hermaphro- 
dite, the rays bearing pistils. Ex. Groundsel, 
cineraria, daisy, dahlia, 

'Order. — Erustranea. Florets of the disk her- 
maphrodite, of the ray sterile. Ex. Sunflower. 

Order. — Necessaria. Florets of the disk ivith 
stamens, of the ray with pistils. Ex. Marigold. 

Order. — Segregata. Florets hermaphrodite, se- 
parating individually, Ex. Globe thistle. 
G 



82 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Class XX. — GrYNATTDRTA {gyne, a woman, andria, 
a man). Stamens and jyistil home on a column. 

Order. — Monandria. Ex. The whole of the Orchis 
family. 

Stamens in one flotver, and pistils in 
another. 

Class XXI. — MONCECIA (monos, one, oikos, house). 
Stamens and pistils in separate flowers home on the 
same plant. 

Order. — Triandria. Ex. Buckweed, sedges, Indian 
corn. 

Order. — Tetrandria. Ex. Eirch, box, nettle, 
auciiba. 

Order. — Pentandria. Ex. Prince's feather. 
Order. — Hexandria. Ex. Cocoa-nut and other 
palms. 

Order. — Polyandria. Ex. Begonia, hurnet. 
Order. — Monodelphia. Ex. Gourds, bryony, 
palma Christi. 
Class XXII. — DICECIA {dis, twice, oikos, house). 
Stamen and instil flowers on separate plants. 

Order. — Diandria. Ex. Willow, vallisneria. 
Order. — Triandria. Ex. Date-palm. 
Order. — Tetrandria. Ex. Mistleto, sea-buck- 
thorn. 

Order. — Pentandria. Ex. Hop, spinach, hemp. 
Order. — Hexandria. Ex. Oil palm, doum-palra, 

Palmyra palm. 
Order. — Oetandria. Ex. Poplar. 
Order. — Polyandria. Ex. Zamia, cycas. 
Class XXIII. — POLYGAMIA {polys, many, gam os, 
marriage). Stamen and pistil flowers separate, or with 
hermaphrodite flowers on the same or on separate plants. 



CONSPECTUS OF THE LINN^AN SYSTEM OF BOTANY. 83 



Order. — Monoecia. Ex. Sensitive and humble 
plants. 

Order. — Dioeeia. Ex. Ash, fan-palm. Ohs. The 
characters which distinguish the three last 
named classes from each other are not always 
constant; different plants of the same species 
being sometimes monoecious, dioecious, or poly- 
gamous. Androgynous is a general term ap- 
plied to plants of these three classes. 

Class XXIV.— CRYPTOGAMIA (kryptos, con- 
cealed, gamos, marriage). Floiverless plants, ivithout 
visible stamens or pistils. 

Order. — Filices. Ex. The Fern family. 

N.B. See Natural famihes. 
Order. — Musci. Ex. The Moss family. 
Order. — Hepaticse. Ex. Marchantia and jun- 
germannia. 

Order. — Lichens. Ex. The Lichen family. 
Order. — Algae. Ex. The Seaweed family. 
Order. — Fungi. Ex. The Fungus family. 

The above is a general exposition of the Linnsean 
system, and as the meaning of the names of the classes 
conveys to the mind their character, further explanation 
is unnecessary. 

On beginning to study this system, the first thing is 
for the student to make himself familiar with the names 
and meaning of the classes and orders, which should be 
followed up by an examination of the flowers of some of 
the plants or others named as examples under each class. 

On becoming familiar with the classes and orders, the 
next step is the study of genera and species, the charac- 
ters of which being founded on special terms will be best 

g2 



84 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



explained by quoting the Linnaean character of two 
allied genera; for example, Ranunculus and Caltha^ be- 
longing to the class Polyandria and order Polygynia. 

Eanunculus. 

Gen» Char. — Calyx, 5 phyllus. Petala 5, intra un- 
gues poro mellifero. Semina, nuda. 

In English the above means that the calyx consists of 
5 sepals ; corolla, 5 petals, each having a honey-bear- 
ing pore at their base, and the seeds naked. 

Caltha. 

Gen. Char. — Calyx 0. Petala 5 — 8. Nect. 0. Caps. 
plures, polyspermse, intus dehiscentes. 

This means that there is no calyx, the corolla con- 
sists of five to eight petals, destitute of nectary, the 
honey-bearing pore, and that it has^ many seed vessels 
opening on the inner side, each containing a number of 
seeds. 

Both these genera contain a number of species, each 
separately described, of which the following is an ex- 
ample, being the specific character of two closely allied 
species of Ranunculus, namely : — 

R. acris. — Calycibus patulis, pedunculis teretibus, 
foliis tripartito-multifidis ; summis linearibus. 

R. hulhosus. — Calycibus retroflexis, pedunculis sul- 
catis, caule erecto multifloro, foliis compositis. 

The most important distinction between these two 
species is in the peduncles of the first being plain, and 
of the latter channelled. 

It is proper to explain that Linnaeus and other early 
botanists frequently erred in calling fruit seed ; for in- 



CONSPECTUS OF THE NATURAL SYSTEM. 85 



stance, in the character of Ranunculus what is termed 
seeds are in reality seed-vessels, each containing a seed. 
(See Fruit.) 

By studying the ahove he will soon become familiar 
with the principles of the Linnsean system and gain a 
considerable knowledge of the structure of flowers, which 
will greatly aid him in the study of plants under their 
natural families. 



CONSPECTUS OF THE NATUEAL SYSTEM. 

Division L — CRYPTOGAMS. Floiverless plants^ 
organs of reproduction hidden, being invisible to the 
naked eye. 

Class I. — Thallogens. Ex. Fungi, algse (sea- 
weed), lichens (fig. 10). 

Class II. — Acrogens. Ex. Mosses, club mosses, 
ferns (fig. 11). 
Division II. — PH-^WOGAMS. Flowering plants, 
with visible stamens and pistils. 

Class III. — Endogens. Ex. Grasses, palms, 
bananas, lilies (fig. 12). 

Class IV. — Gymnogens. Ex. The cycad, fir and 
yew families (fig. 13). 

Class V. — Bhizogens. Ex, Eafilesia and balano- 
phora. 

Class VI. — Exogens. All trees, shrubs and herbs 
with net- veined leaves (fig. 14). 
It has been shown that several of the Linnsean classes 
are what is termed natural, yet the greater number con- 
sist of plants difi'ering widely in character and appear- 



86 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



ance. Be that as it may, it must be admitted that 
natural families also consist of plants of very different 
habits and appearance. Snowdrop and American aloes 
for instance being associated in the same family, and 
clover and acacia tree in another. But although such 
is the case, they nevertheless agree in the character of 
their flowers and fruit. It must, however, be under- 
stood, that in any number of species constituting a family, 
there are nevertheless often one or more which deviate in 
some particular point from its normal character, as — to 
have opposite leaves instead of alternate, while agreeing 
in every other character. Therefore in describing and 
characterizing families it is necessary to use modifying 
words, as sometimes, rarely, often. 

According to the Linneean system, by simply examin- 
ing the stamens and pistils of any plant its class and 
order can be readily determined. But to be able to refer 
plants to their respectis^e natural families much more 
study is required, as the following will show. Linnaeus 
being aware that his sexual system was quite artificial, 
with the knowledge of the principles of natural classifi- 
cation as pointed out by Bay, he in 1751 gave his views 
of a natural arrangement, under which he classed all 
plants then known to him under sixty-eight orders. 
But the credit of scientifically defining the principles of 
natural classification is due to A. L. Jussieu, a French 
botanist, who in 1789 published a Genera Plantarum," 
or Natural System of Plants, in which the whole are 
arranged under 100 natural orders, comprehended under 
15 classes, the primary characters being derived from 
the seed having one, two, or no cotyledons, the corolla 
being raonopetalous or polypetalous, and in the stamens 
being hypogynous, epigynous or perigynous, which have 



CONSPECTUS OF THE NATURAL SYSTEM. 



87 



continued to be permanent characters in all succeeding 
natural arrangements. This system was patronized in 
France, and was adopted by the celebrated botanist, M. 
De Candolle, who in 1819 published his amended Ele- 
mentary Theory of Botany," in which he classified flower- 
ing plants under 150 natural families. But Dr. Lindley, 
in his "Vegetable Kingdom," 1846, has, by separating 
genera from these orders, increased the number to 303, 
which he forms into 56 groups called alliances, the cha- 
racters of which with those of the families are founded on 
a general view of the whole of the organisms of plants, 
which will be best understood by quoting an example. 

"Alliance XXXII. The Kanal Alliance. 

Hypogynous Exogens, ivith monodichlamydeous 
floivers, sutured or ax'ile placenta, numerous stamens, 
and a minute embryo enclosed in a large quantity of 
fleshy or horny albumen. 

Order, Eanunculacea. 

" Herbs, or rarely shrubs. Leaves alternate or opposite, 
generally much divided, with the petiole dilated and 
forming a sheath half clasping the stem. Stipule-like 
processes occasionally present. Hairs (if any), simple. 
Inflorescence variable. Flowers usually conspicuous ; 
if apetalous, then with the sepals large and gaily coloured. 
Sepals 3 — 6, hypogynous, deciduous, generally imbri- 
cate in aestivation, occasionally valvate or duplicate. 
Petals 3 — 15, hypogynous, in one or more rows, distinct, 
sometimes deformed, in some cases missing. Stamens 
(very rarely definite), hypogynous; anthers adnate. 
Carpels numerous, 1-celled or united into a single many- 
celled pistil ; ovary one or more seeded, the ovules sutu- 



88 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



ral; styles simple ; ovules anatropal. Fruit either con- 
sisting of dry akenia, or baccate with one or more seeds ; 
or follicular with one or two valves. Seeds albuminous ; 
when solitary, either erect or pendulous. Embryo 
minute. Albumen horny." 

The reader may here truly exclaim, " Save me from 
being obliged to study botany." But these characters 
are perfectly legitimate, and plants cannot be scientifi- 
cally studied without them. It is nevertheless possible 
to obtain a practical acquaintance with the families of 
plants without the necessity of having to study the more 
obscure parts of their organism. For that purpose I have, 
in drawing up the characters of the families, only taken 
into account the most obvious parts, especially as regards 
their mode of growth and general habit, only noticing 
(and not in all cases) the parts of the flower and nature 
of the fruit, which I consider will be sufficient to convey 
a general idea of the plants constituting each family. 

In compiling this part of the work, I have been greatly 
assisted by the opportunities afforded me at Kew of ex- 
amining a greater or less number of species belonging 
to the families of flowering plants enumerated by Dr. 
Lindley, of only thirty of which I have not seen examples 
in a living state. 

Admitting the characters of the classes and orders 
(families) of the natural system to be more com- 
plex and intricate than the Linnaean, nevertheless on 
acquiring a knowledge of the principles on which it is 
established, it will be found to possess merits much be- 
yond that of the Linnaean. For as regards the latter, 
no decision can be arrived at unless the plants are in 
flower. But on becoming practically acquainted with 
the general habit and nature of any number of species 



CONSPECTUS OF THE NATURAL SYSTEM. 89 



belonging to well marked families, other species, although 
not in flower, can in general by their likeness be referred 
to their respective families ; and in many cases, aided by 
the sense of taste, scent, and touch, a twig, a single leaf, 
flower, or fruit, is often sufficient data for that purpose. 

To assist the practical amateur to attain that degree of 
knowledge, I have drawn up the following arrangement 
of flowering plants in as simple a manner as the scien- 
tific nature of the subject reasonably permits. Pre- 
suming that the preceding pages have been duly studied, 
the next step is to examine and compare plants in flower 
with the characters of the principal divisions and sec- 
tions of the classification, which will lead the student to 
determine their places in their sequence of arrangement, 
and in many cases to their special families. 

In the selection of examples, I have, as far as pos- 
sible, chosen species well known by popular English 
names, or for their products ; and with regard to the 
botanical names I have, in order to avoid perplexing the 
learner with synonyms, in most cases adopted the original 
Linnsean, or such modern name as is best known, the 
synonym being sometimes included in parentheses. The 
families of special plants, or products having popular 
names, will be readily found by reference to the index. 
By diligent practical application of the above, the amateur 
student cannot fail, during the course of a year, to be- 
come acquainted with the special characters and features 
of the principal families represented in this country by 
natives or exotics ; beyond that point this work does not 
profess to teach. 

Botanists not only entertain different views as to the 
relationship of families, but also in their mode of com- 
mencing their systems ; some begin with Cryptogams, 



90 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



the lowest degree of plant development, passing upwards 
to the highest, considered to be represented by the 
Kanunciilus, Poppy, and Magnolia families. Others com- 
mence with the latter, and pass downwards to the lowest. 

In the following arrangement, I have adopted Dr. 
Lindley's view of classification, as given in his Vege- 
table Kingdom ;" but in consequence of the great im- 
portance attached by him to the position and character 
of the ovules, embryo, and the presence or absence of 
albumen in the seed in determining affinities, families 
related in every respect, but differing in the nature of 
the ovule, etc., are placed far apart. Admitting these 
characters to be of great importance scientifically, as 
they are not evident to common observation, I have 
deviated fi-om his sequence of arrangement by bring- 
ing into proximity families placed by him in diffe- 
rent alliances ; thus in many cases arranging them in 
accordance with the position they hold in the systems of 
Jussieu and De Candolle. 

I have now given a general view of the organisms and 
functions of plants, which I trust will be sufficient to 
enable the amateur student to acquire a knowledge of 
the principles of Botany. It is, however, necessary to 
explain that the subject separates iuto two branches, 
which to a certain extent may be independently studied. 
The first is called Phytology,"^ and embraces the organs 
of growth and reproduction, which with classification 
constitute descriptive and systematic botany — that is, 
naming, classifying, and technically describing plants. 

The second consists in the microscopical examination 
of the structure of plants, which is termed physical bo- 



* From the Greek wovd ^^huton (phyton), a plant. 



CONSPECTUS OF THE NATUKAL SYSTEM. 91 



tany, or vegetable physiology, and forms not only part 
of the legitimate study of the systematic botanist, but is 
also independently studied by microscopic observers in 
general, affording a high degree of intellectual pleasure, 
not only in beholding the varied wonders and works of 
nature in the structure of plants, but also assisting to 
explain some obscure functions of life. It is also of 
great practical use in detecting the frauds in adultera- 
tions of food, woven fabrics, the qualities of timbers, and 
the like ; as well as being of great assistance to the 
chemist and pharmaceutist. 

By the first the student is furnished with means for 
ascertaining the names of plants and their position in the 
system. While the second is of importance in assisting 
him to ascertain the virtues and economical uses of 
plants, which we now proceed to consider. 



PAET II. 



THE FAMILIES OF PLANTS SYSTEMATICALLY AR- 
RANGED, WITH A DESCRIPTION OP THEIR CHA- 
RACTERS, PROPERTIES, USES, &c. 



DIVISION I.— CRYPTOGAMS. 

iLOWEELESS plants, consisting of cellular tissue 



J- only. Organs of fructification obscure, generating 
microscopic spores, contained in cells, cysts, or cases 
imbedded in the substance, or seated on the surface of 
the plant, or borne on stalks. This division contains 
the whole of the plants comprehended by Linnaeus in 
the class Cryptogamia. 



This class comprises all plants known by the names of 
Lichens, Sea-iueeds, Conferva, and Fungi ; the higher 
forms consisting of leafy expansions, called fronds — the 
lower of microscopic globules, or jointed filaments. 
Amongst them the lowest types and most simple forms 
of vegetation are to be found. They are generally 
mucilaginous, soft or gelatinous, many being of special 
interest as useful for food, and in the arts. The dis- 
coveries of late years, not only in the number of new 
species, but also in their structure, have led botanists to 
separate them into distinct families. 




CLASS I.— THALLOGENS. 



THE BRITTLEWORT FAMILY. 



93 



Fig. 10. 




a. Spore-cases and spores of Algse ; 6. Ditto of Lichens ; 
c. Ditto of Fungi. 

The Brittlewort Family. 

(DiATOMACEiS.) 

This family consists of microscopical crystalline, brittle, 
jointed bodies united in straight or curved lines or branched, 
often separating into pieces and presenting very different 
forms, being the lowest organisms of the vegetable kingdom. 

The apparent animal motion seen in some of these plants 
has led to the idea that they belonged to the animal kingdom, 
but chemical analysis proves them to be vegetable. They 
appear either in the form of slime on moist earth, stone walls, 
or in damp, shady places, and even on damp glass, also on 
stones in fresh water, and on rocks in the sea, often floating 
and imparting a green, and even a red colour, to the latter, as 
in parts of the Red Sea, whence its name. Above 450 species 
have been described and arranged under 45 genera. They 
exist in all parts of the world, even in the Polar seas, but are 
not of any special use to man. 

The Conferva iPamily, 

(CONFERVACE^.) 

This family consists of globose, hair, thread, or broad leaf- 
like bodies, growing on stones and rocks in fresh or salt 



94 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



water, on the surface of moist stones, or other bodies, some- 
times like slime, or in jelly-like masses. Above 350 species 
are enumerated and arranged under about 50 genera. Purple 
laver {Porphjra vulgaris and P. laciniata), green laver 
( Ulva latissima and U. compressa)^ are broad riband-like 
plants, found on many parts of the rocky coasts of this country. 
They are used as condiments. 

Star j elly {Nostoc commune). A gelatinous substance spring- 
ing up in round patches after rain. Nostoc edule is whole- 
some, and in China is dried, and used in making soups. 

In 1855 several square miles in the Bombay Presidency 
were covered with Nostoc collinum. The natives called it 
meat, and considered that it fell from heaven. The spores 
are supposed to float in the air, and alighting on congenial 
surfaces where the temperature, and moisture are favourable, 
spring suddenly into existence, as the perfect plant. 

Several species of ConfervcB are extremely troublesome in 
ornamental ponds, lakes, and plant aquariums, covering the 
surface with a foetid scum, or flannel-like masses. 

Ball Conferva (^Conferva cegropila). A native of lakes in 
many parts of Europe. It is in the form of a ball, of a green 
colour, and when full grown is about three to four inches in 
diameter, being composed of successive growths of entangled 
filaments forming a firm spherical mass. 

The different species of Scytonema, although microscopic 
in their character, nevertheless, from the great extent of 
surface they occupy, and their different colours of red, green, 
and black, form conspicuous objects in nature. 

In Angola (West Africa), the mountain rocks during the 
rainy season become striped, and ultimately covered as with 
a black mantle ; this singular appearance being due to the 
rapid growth of Scytonema chorographicum. In the dry 
season it peels off like paper, and the rocks assume their 
natural grey tint. In this country during summer, water in 
stagnant ponds becomes of a green colour, which is caused 
by a microscopic globular alga that increases rapidly, and 
floats in clusters of such density as to give the water the 



THE DULSE FAMILY. 



95 



appearance of green-pea soup. It lias received the name of 
Cla th rocjjs tis cerug in osa . 

Eed Snow [Protococcus nivalis). Tliis singular substance 
consists of microscopic globules, covering large tracts of 
snow in the Arctic and Alpine regions with patches of a 
bright red colour, which after pressure with the foot or 
sledge, assumes the appearance of blood. It is raj^idly 
generated, and is in some parts believed by the superstitious 
to be showers of blood. 

The Dulse Family. 

(CEPw\iIIACE.E.) 

Sea plants, generally of a rose pink or red colom-, varying 
much both in size and form, some being like hairs, others 
leafy, entire, more or less lobed, palmate, or much divided, 
like parsley, or endive. The family consists of about 700 
species, divided amongst nearly 100 genera. They are prin- 
cipally found in the northern hemisphere. 

A considerable number contain gelatine, which is used for 
food, and other piu'poses. 

Dulse {Rlioclomenia palmata). A common species growing 
abundantly on the rocky shores of this coimtry, and also in 
Ireland, being found at the lowest ebb of the tide. It is of a 
red colour, and is eaten in a raw state as a salad, and con- 
sidered extremely beneficial in scrofulous complaints, its 
efficacy being no doubt due to the iodine it contains. 

Carageen Moss [Cliondrus crispy s). This, like the last, is 
common on the rocky coasts, and is extensively collected as 
an article of commerce. It is of a Hvid purple, or greenish 
yellow colour, and contains a considerable quantity of gela- 
tine, which is used for food. 

C. maniillosus answers the same purpose. When dry they 
retain their virtues for a long period. 

Ceylon Moss {Gracilaria lichnoides). A delicate Avhite 
sea-weed found growing upon rocks in the Indian and 
Malayan seas, and known also by the Malayan names of 



96 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Agar Agar, or Agal Agal. It is largely collected and made 
into a jelly much resembling that obtained from calves' feet, 
and forms an extensive article of trade at Singapore and 
Borneo, constituting part of the cargo of the Chinese 
junks on their return voyages. It is also used as a varnish, 
more especially for the paper employed in the manu- 
facture of Chinese lanterns, to which it imparts a yellow 
tinge. 

Plocaria tenax. Native of the Indian and Chinese seas. 
It contains much gelatine, and is considered to be the chief 
substance of which the sea-swallows compose their nests. 
The process imparts to them a peculiar character, and they 
form an important article of commerce among the Chinese, 
by whom they are considered a great luxury. 

The Seaweed Family. 

(FUCACE^.) 

Plants inhabiting the sea, or growing in fresh water. In 
general they consist of thick, firm, leathery fronds of a brown, 
olive, green, or red colour, narrow or broad, entire or vari- 
ously divided, their stems being solid or hollow, often of a 
considerable thickness, some slender and of a great length ; 
when dried oft-en becoming hard and horny. In some species 
their reproductive spores are borne in bladder-like cases. 
This extensive family forms the forests and shrubberies of 
the ocean. About 450 species are enumerated, abounding in 
all seas, even to high latitudes. 

Wrack. During storms the force of the waves uproots 
large quantities of seaweeds of different species, which are 
wafted on shore and left by the receding tide. They are 
chiefly such strong- growing species as Fucus vesiculosus^ 
F. nodosus, F. senatus, Laminaria digitata, and L. hulhosa 
(known also as tangle). In former years the collecting, dry- 
ing, and burning of " wrack" furnished employment to large 
numbers of people in Scotland and Ireland. The ashes con- 
tain an alkali caUed " kelp," used in the manufacture of soap 



I 



THE LIME-WOKT FAMILY. 



97 



and glass. Since barilla" has been used for these purposes 
the burning of sea-wrack has almost ceased. From the 
alkali of sea-weeds an important chemical substance called 
*' iodine'^ is obtained, which is well known in medicine and 
the arts as a powerful absorbent. In agricultural districts, 
*' wrack'''' is eagerly sought after for manure ; its virtue as 
such depends principally on the salt it contains. 

Gulf-weed (Sargassum hacciferum). A deep-sea weed, its 
fronds rising from a great depth, and covering the surface of 
the ocean for thousands of square miles. It is found in the 
meridian of 40'' W., and between the latitudes of 20" and 
45^ N. 

Trumpet sea-weed (Laminaria huccinalis). The stems of 
this species attain the height of six or more feet, being nar- 
row at the base but widening upwards, and bearing long, 
broad, leafy fronds, which " float on the surface. The stems 
are cut into lengths, and used as a curiosity trumpet. De- 
prived of its alkaline properties by a chemical process, it 
becomes tough and plastic, like morocco leather, and is then 
used for binding albums. By other processes it becomes 
hardened, and is then used for walking-sticks, whips, and 
knife-handles ; also as a substitute for stag-horn. 

The Lime -wort Family. 

(Charace^.) 

Small fresh-water plants, having articulated stems and 
branches which grow in whorls, either transparent or coated 
with carbonate of lime. The organs of reproduction consist of 
globose nut-like bodies of two sizes, covered by spiral tubes, 
which give them a striated appearance. 

This singular family comprises about thirty described 
species, found in stagnant water in most parts of the world. 
They grow very rapidly, and soon fiU shallow waters, some- 
times forming great masses which decay and become offen- 
sive, causing malaria in many districts, as in the Pontine 
marshes near Rome. They have no knowQ uses, and must 

H 



9$ 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



only be regarded as botanical curiosities, more especially as 
they beautifully illustrate the circulation of the sap, such being 
readily seen under a microscope in the joints of their stems. 
Nitella translucens is best suited for that purpose, but as 
Chara vulgaris is the most common, it may be substituted 
after the lime with which it is coated is removed. By shut- 
ting up a portion of this species in a phial containing a little 
water, it will grow, adhering to the sides of the glass, and be 
perfectly free from the lime. There are six species natives 
of this country. 

The Fungus Family. 

(Fungi.) 

This family is represented by mushrooms, toadstools, 
moulds, mildews, dry-rot and such like plants, which are 
found on living, or more abundantly on decayed animal or 
vegetable matter. The number of so-called species is beyond 
calculation ; indeed it seems as though new forms spring 
into existence according to the nature of the substances upon 
which they grow. They almost appear to be organisms of 
chance, many coming to perfection in a single night, flu 
such a vast assemblage of species great diversity of size and 
form is to be found, from microscopic globules to the 
gigantic Boletus which, by the rapidity and power of its 
growth, is capable of raising heavy weights. A number of 
species of Eryciphe appear in the form of spots or blotches on 
trees and shrubs, and are very conspicuous in the autumn on 
the leaves of the maple, while a number of species of Scle- 
rotium grow upon leaves and dead branches after they have 
fallen. Mildew and mould have the power of destroying 
organized bodies, living or dead, thus becoming a great pest to 
the human race. Their spores float in the air and are supposed 
to transmit, and to be the actual cause of, contagious diseases. 
Their minute proportions may be imagined Avhen it is stated 
that a square inch will contain millions. Although so very 
minute they vary considerably in form and size, being globose, 



THE FUNGUS FAMILY. 



99 



oval, oblong, banded, smooth, warted, or spinose. Fungi 
are found in all parts of the world, but most abundantly in 
moist places in temperate countries. The difference between 
moulds, fungi, and some filamentous confervas, is not evident 
to common observers, and in some cases it is supposed that 
the same organisms assume the characters of either under 
different influences; there is, however, one important dis- 
tinction, viz., that fungi never grow in water like confervas, j 
and are rarely green, being destitute of chlorophyl. 

The study of Fungi is termed Mycology. Of those pos- 
sessing the greatest degree of development, as in agarics and 
their allies, the principal parts are known by the following 
special names. Mycelium^ common to all Fungi, consists of 
hair, or thread-like filaments growing under, or upon the 
surface of the ground or other bodies, and from which, under 
favourable circumstances, perfect plants are produced. In 
the common mushroom it is white and thread-like, and is 
called " spawn," the perfect plant first appearing like small \ 
round knobs, which, as they increase in size, are seen to be 
covered with a membrane called the volva^ or veil ; this is 
burst by the growth of the young mushroom which it con- 
tains, the latter when full grown consisting of an umbrella- 
like cap called the pileus, borne on a stalk (stipes). The 
pileus as seen from below is composed of numerous lamellas 
{hymenium), known as the gills, and in these the spore cases 
(asci) are embedded. The Rev. M. J. Berkeley, the greatest 
authority on this subject, estimates the number of species a* 
about 4000, of which 2380 are natives of Britain. Many 
are used for food, while many more are in the highest degree 
poisonous. The common mushroom {Agaricus campestris) is 
so well known that it is not necessary to describe it. It is 
found abundantly in pastures during the summer and autumn 
months. The horse mushroom (A. arvensis) is larger than 
the preceding, some specimens being eighteen inches in 
diameter. This species is largely used for making ketchup. ] 

Fairy Rings. — In autumn several species of fungi spring 
up suddenly on grassy lawns, growing in rings of greater or 

H 2 



100 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



less diameter. The superstitious formerly supposed these 
rings were produced by some supernatural agency, and be- 
lieved that spirits called fairies held their midnight revels 
within the circles. Their formation is, however, very simple, 
natural, and easily accounted for. A solitary tuft ' first 
appears, performs its functions, and dies. The next season 
another patch appears outside the spot occupied by the 
original, forming a small ring, and this is repeated from year 
to year, the ring increasing in size. The decay of the 
previous fungi rendering the soil unfit for the reproduction 
of the same species, the mycelium or spores find fresh soil on 
the external margin of the ring, and again germinate. One 
species of fairy-ring fungi, Marasmius Oreades, is edible, and 
is called the champignon. 

Morel {Morchella esculenta). A native of this country, is 
found growing in woods and pastures, especially where char- 
coal has been burnt. It attains the height of from three to 
four inches, and consists of a smooth, white, cylindrical stem, 
having a hollow spherical cap of a pale brown or grey 
colour, and adhering to the stem by its base. It is marked 
with deep pits all over its surface, and is used in cookery, 
both fresh and also when dried. Truffle {Tuber ciharium) is 
found principally in Kent and the neighbouring counties. It 
is of a spherical shape, seldom exceeding the size of a walnut, 
and when old is of a black colour veined with white. It 
grows under the surface of the ground in calcareous soils, 
generally under trees. It was formerly sought after by 
means of dogs trained for the purpose, but now more gene- 
rally it is discovered by a particular species of fly hovering 
over the place of its growth, being attracted by its odour. 
Truffles are used in cookery, forming a much esteemed and 
expensive dish. Helvella esculenta^ H. crispa, and H. lacu- 
nosa grow something like mushrooms, being generally found 
in woods. Some are wholesome when cooked, while others 
of the same genus are poisonous. Boletus edulis grows upon 
trees, and sometimes attains a large size ; it is said to be 



THE FUNGUS FAMILY. 



101 



wholesome wlien cooked, and in some parts of Germany is 
preferred to mushrooms. 

Fly Agaric {Amanita muscaria). A common fungus of a 
red colour ; when steeped in syrup it is used as a poison for 
flies. It is of an intoxicating nature, and in Kamtchatka, 
and other parts of Northern Asia, is used instead of ardent 
spirits. When dried it loses its intoxicating and poisonous 
properties, and is then stored for winter food. Puff-ball 
{Lycoperdon bovista, or L. giganteura) commonly grow in 
dry pastures, the chief difference between the two depend- 
ing on size, which varies from a few inches to a foot or more 
in diameter, some weighing as much as 6 lbs. They are of 
a brown colour and globular form, solid when young, and 
are then wholesome, cut in slices, and fried in butter. 
When fully ripe and pressed with the hand, or trodden on, 
they emit their spores in a dusty cloud resembling smoke. 
German tinder (^Amadou or Moxa). A substance obtained 
from Polyporus fomentarius, which grows on trees in this 
country, but more abundantly in Germany, where it is col- 
lected in large quantities, and forms a considerable article of 
trade. It is cut in slices and beaten out, forming large sheets 
like thick felt, which is used for warm underclothing, and 
when mixed with saltpetre forms the substance known as 
German tinder. 

Some fungi are phosphorescent, the most remarkable being 
Ehizomorpha subterranea, which grows in mines, and gives to 
those of Dresden quite an enchanted appearance. Many 
species emit very offensive odours, especially Phallus foetidus^ 
which grows in woods and damp shady places. Dry-rot consists 
of the mycelium or spawn of several species of Boletus^ and 
other fungi, which under certain circumstances of heat and 
moisture attack woodwork in ships and houses, growing in 
the dark, and rapidly increasing in bulk, first covering the 
surface with a layer of thread-like filaments, which are con- 
tinually being added to, and ultimately forming a thick, 
leathery substance, as is often found behind the partitions of 



102 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



walls and under floors. It penetrates the wood in all direc- 
tions, in many cases doing irreparable mischief before being 
observed. The perfect plant is only occasionally developed 
through crevices. The following species are active dry-rot 
operators : — Polypoms hyhridus^ Thelephora puteana, Meru- 
lius lacrymans, and M. vastata. I^eziza ceruginosa penetrates 
and imparts a fine green colour like verdigris to wood of 
which ladies' work-boxes, toys, &c., are made. 

Mildew. The microscope reveals many kinds of mildew, 
their structure consisting of cells (gonidia), reproducing their 
like, and forming chain-like, branched filaments, which rapidly 
spread over vegetable substances like a thin web, and although 
infinitesimally small, act an important part in the economy of 
nature. They, with their allies the dry-rots, are powerful agents 
in reducing vegetable substances to their original and invisible 
elements. Their effects are generally limited, but when whole 
fields are attacked they become more serious. The most 
important instance is that which took place in 1846—7, when 
the potato plant throughout Great Britain and Ireland was 
suddenly smitten with a disease hitherto unknown, and the 
failure of the crop caused a famine in Ireland. This new 
disease rapidly spread itself over Europe and distant coun- 
tries, and now periodically shows itself with more or less 
virulence in different parts of the country. As might reason- 
ably be expected, the origin and effects of this terrible scourge 
led to much research and investigation, and now it is gene- 
rally admitted to be caused by a mildew which has received 
the name of Botrytis infestans. Shortly after the advent of 
the potato disease, the grape-vine became attacked by a mil- 
dew, which showed itself in vineries until it covered the 
leaves and grapes to that extent that black grapes became 
white with the web. In a few years it was found ravaging 
the vineyards of Europe, causing great deterioration in the 
produce of grapes and quality of wine. The disease reached 
Madeira, producing ruin and famine in that island. Like the 
potato disease it has become endemic, and is known by the 
name of Oidium Tuckeri. Other field plants are also occa- 



THE FUNGUS FAMILY. 



103 



sionally attacked by mildew, such as wheat, peas, and turnips, 
whole fields of the latter becoming white in a single night. 

The great extent and sudden appearance of mildew gives 
a reason for much speculation as to its origin and propaga- 
tion, of which even a summary would occupy too much 
space here. Many species of fungi having the nature of mil- 
dew are common to fruits, as apples and pears, commencing 
sometimes from a wound in the skin, the jointed filaments of 
the fungus soon entirely enveloping the fruit. In other cases, 
apples, &c., without any apparent external blemish, are 
affected, the whole substance becoming perforated by the 
fibres, which soon causes them to rot. Sometimes pears per- 
fectly sound to all appearance, are unpalatable through the 
presence of fungi, which renders them extremely bitter. The 
spots found on linen after being folded up for a long time are 
due to some kind of mildew. 

Smut-dust (Ustilago segeturri). A common form of mil- 
dew found on grasses, but its effects on wheat are of a 
formidable character, doing great injury. It affects the ear 
in its earliest stage, completely destroying the young grain, 
and causing the whole to become a swollen mass of black, 
sooty dust. 

Bunt, or Pepper-brand ( Ustilago foetidd). Wheat is at- 
tacked with this as by the preceding, but in this case the ear 
is only partially affected, some of the grains being left perfect, 
while that affected becomes filled with dust of a foetid odour, 
distinguishing it from the smut or dust-brand which is scent- 
less. In both cases the dust is the spores or organs by which 
the plants are reproduced, and with these the ground, and 
also the sound grains become impregnated. Experiments 
made by the celebrated microscopist, Francis Bauer, show 
that the spores are absorbed into the tissues of the plant, and 
carried up till they reach the ear, where they develope and 
multiply to the destruction of the grain. 

Ergot (Oidium ahortifaciens). A microscopic mildew com- 
mon to grasses, attacking one or more of the young grains in 
the ear, which it affects in such a manner as to cause it to 



104 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



swell into a substance very distinct from that of the grain, 
being solid and of a fatty nature, generally in the form of 
a spur, sometimes an inch or more in length. This is common 
to rye, whence the name " spurred" rye. In its earliest stage 
the surface of the spur is covered with mildew of a chalky- 
white colour, which moisture readily removes; hence the 
spurs (ergot of shops) are of a black colour, the mildew fila- 
ments being the oidium or true plant. The spur is very 
poisonous, and in Germany and other parts of Europe, where 
rye-bread is extensively used, it causes those who eat it to 
be afflicted with incurable gangrenous diseases. This led to 
the interference of Government to test the purity of rye be- 
fore being ground. Ergot being common to grasses on w^hich 
sheep and cattle browse, it is supposed to be the cause of dis- 
eases to them. Although it is of such a poisonous nature, it 
is a most valuable medicine. 

Moulds consist of different species of Mucor and Penicil- 
lium. They are similar to mildews in their ravages, but 
more evident, being larger, and are often seen with their 
fructification on stalks like pin-heads growing on jellies, 
bread, cheese, &c. Yeast is the result of a species of 
Mucor ^ or Penicillium, as is also the vinegar plant, which 
is brought into existence by a combination of sugar, treacle, 
and flour. Racodium cellare is a curious filamentous 
fungus growing in wine-cellars, covering the walls and casks 
with a substance like felt. A mildew fungus attacks the 
corks of wine bottles, also the wine itself, making it what is 
called ropy." Grease mould [Mucorini phy corny ces) has 
the appearance of a filamentous conferva, and grows abun- 
dantly on oily walls, also on grease, destroying all fatty 
matter, and often causing great losses to the merchant. Poly- 
actis vulgaris is a filamentous spiderweb-like mould, appear- 
ing suddenly in a single night, and spreading rapidly over 
moist surfaces. It is a great pest to gardeners, as it destroys 
low plants in propagating and store-pits. 

Fungi do not confine their attacks to dead substances, but 
are known to grow on living animals, of which there are 



THE LICHEN FAMILY. 105 

several instances. Wasps are found with horn-like bodies 
growing out of their heads, being a species of Sphoeria. 

Sphceria Rohertsii^ a native of New Zealand, is found grow- 
ing on the head of a caterpillar, which, on burying itself in 
the earth to undergo its metamorphosis, is attacked by the 
fungus, which rises like a spike to about six inches in height, 
and of course kills the caterpillar. A species similar in its 
habits is found in Tasmania, and S. sinensis^ a native of 
China, grows in a similar manner. Silkworms are liable to 
be infested by a minute fungus, Botrytis hasseana, supposed 
to be a changed state of an alga. Achy la prolifera, which de- 
stroys gold-fish, giving them quite a woolly appearance. 

The Lichen Family. 

(Lichens.) 

Cellular plants, generally of a grey colour, growing on the 
earth' rocks, stones, or trees, rarely in water, varying in size 
and form from a grain like a pin's head to a slender filiform, 
or broad leafy expansion, either entire or branched. Their 
reproductive organs consist of circular shield-like bodies, 
called scutellce, or cup-like cavities, either free, sessile, or 
borne on a stalk. They occupy extensive plains in high 
northern latitudes, as also rocky cliffs in the tropical zone. 
There are upwards of 2500 enumerated species, some few of 
which produce gelatine used as food, and colouring matter 
employed in dyeing. 

Iceland Moss {Cetraria islandica). A foliaceous lichen, 
growing about six inches high, common in this country and 
throughout northern Europe. It is extensively collected, and ^ 
made into a nutritious jelly for invalids. ! 

Tripe de Roche, or Eock Tripe. 

A name applied to one or more species of Umhilicaria and 
Gyrophora. They are circular in form, attached by the 
centre, and lie nearly flat on rocks to which they cling., 



106 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



They turn black when dried, and contain a bitter principle. 
I They have been of great utility as food to distressed Arctic 
navigators. 

Lung Lichen (^Sticta pulmonaria). A broad leafy species, 
growing on the ground in woods, generally among grass, and 
called by the English peasants the " Lungs of the Oak." It 
is used as a substitute for Iceland moss. 

Peltidea ajjJithosa, P. canina, and F. rufescens^ are similar 
in habit and qualities to the last. 

Reindeer Moss [Cladoma rangiferina). An erect, finely- 
branched species, of a white or grey colour, growing in com- 
pact masses, about six inches high, and covering large tracts 
of country throughout Northern Europe and Arctic America, 
where it may be said to represent the herbage of more 
southern latitudes. It is well known as the food of the reindeer. 

Tree hair (Usnea harhata and Alectoria juhata). Fila- 
mentous lichens, growing in tufts on trees, and hanging 
down from the branches like bunches of thread or grey hair. 
They are common in this country, especially in damp woods, 
often quite covering the trees; while in Lapland they are so 
abundant as to give the fir forests quite a thick, gloomy ap- 
pearance. 

Orchil {Roccella tinctorid). A foliaceous species growing 
in tufts on rocks. It is from two to six inches high, and 
differs much in breadth, which has led to several of the more 
distinct forms being regarded as species. It is found in all 
parts of the world, even on the dry rocks of Aden, and is 
abundant on the rocky shores of this country, often growing 
on perpendicular cliffs, from which situation it is collected, 
men being lowered with ropes, for that purpose. It has been 
extensively used in dyeing, and originally formed a valuable 
article of commerce, but like many other things of the past, 
lichen dyes are now being superseded by fine dyes obtained 
from coal-tar. The delicate chemical test called " litmus" 
is obtained from this, and other lichens. 

Many other lichens resembling the Roccella in habit, but 
growing on trees, are found in this country. Ramalina 



THE MOSS FAMILY. 



107 



fraxinea and B. farinacea are most common, and generally 
their growth denotes unhealthy forest vegetation. They 
yield but a small amount of colouring matter. 

Manna {Lecanora esculenta). A crustaceous species of a 
grey or brownish colour, growing on the mountains of 
Armenia, and other countries of Asia Minor. At some period 
of its growth it becomes dried up, and is blown by the winds 
to a considerable distance, eventually falling, and covering 
the ground with a coat several inches in depth ; the inhabitants 
suppose that it falls from heaven. In times of scarcity it is 
ground up with corn, and used for food. This plant is found 
abundantly in the desert in which the children of Israel so- 
journed, and is by some travellers and commentators sup- 
posed to be the substance they called manna. Showers of 
it have fallen in Algeria. 

Cudbear {Lecanora tartar ed). A common crustaceous 
lichen, formerly very extensively used in Scotland for dyeing 
wool. 

Parmelia parietina. One of the most beautiful crustaceous 
lichens, covering trees, or walls with a fine yellow, or redi 
tinge. It has been highly valued as a dye. 

CLASS II.— ACROGElSrS. 

Leafy plants, having stems with a firm central axis, 
which branches into the cellular laminae forming midribs, 
and veins. Keproduced by spores, contained in special 
spore cases {sporangia, thecce, dc). 

This class contains mosses, club-mosses, ferns, and 
horse-tails (fig. \l, a,h, c). 

THE MOSS AND LIVERWOET ALLIANCE. 
The Moss Family. 

(Bryace^, or Musci.) 

Plants with erect, or creeping, simple, or branched 
stems, the central axis being composed of firm, elongated 



108 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



cellular tissue, generally furnished with alternate, entire, or 
serrated leaves, having a midrib only. Fructification of two 
kinds, Antheridia (rnale) and Pistilidia (^female), the latter 
eventually becoming urn-shaped spore cases {thecce)^ borne on 
long or short footstalks (setce), opening at the apex by a lid 
{operculum), and generally covered by a deciduous, mem- 
braneous, smooth, or hairy covering {calyptra), (fig. 11, a.). 
Above 1000 species of this interesting family are enumerated. 
They have a wide geographical range, but are most abundant 



Fig. U. 




a. Spore-case and spores of Mosses ; 6. Ditto of Equisetum, 
Lycopodium, aud Marsilea ; c. Ditto of Ferns. 



in the temperate zones, although some are found in both 
tropical and polar regions. 

In the northern parts of Europe the genus Sphagnum 
covers large bogs, and in course of time becomes converted 
into Peat, which is , used for fuel. Above 300 species are 
natives of this country. Of these many are common to all 
localities, growing on lawns, trees, old walls, and in shady 
woods. Some few have leaves of a metallic hue, as the 
silvery Bryum {B. argenteum). A few are very local, the 
beautiful Splachnum ampullaceum, being found only on the 
dung of animals. Schistostegia osmundacea ornaments 



THE HOESE-TAIL FAMILY. 



109 



caverns with its luminous golden hue, while Cinclidotus 
fontinaloides and Fontinalis antipyretica grow upon rocks, 
stones, or woodwork in running streams. Being generally 
destitute of economic or medicinal virtues, but few species 
are of use to man. Some species of Hypnum are useful for 
packing, and small, light brooms are made of Polytrichum 
commune. 

Sphagnum is used for stuffing cushions, and for gardening/ 
purposes. ^ 

The Liver-wort Family. 

(HEPATICEiE.) 

This family includes the genera Riccia, Marchantia, and 
Jungej-mannia, containing about 700 species described by 
modern botanists. These three genera are typical of as many 
distinct families, but it is not necessary here to consider 
them as such. They consist of small membraneous plants, 
having a distinct axis, simple or much branched, or having 
separate leaves. They are erect, or creeping, or lie flat upon 
the earth, stones, or trees, some floating in water, and all 
growing in moist places. Their spore cases are generally 
produced on footstalks, sometimes on the leafy surface of the 
so-called frond. They are widely distributed throughout 
temperate and warm regions, but have no economic pro- 
perties or uses, and can only be looked upon as botanical 
curiosities. The genus Jungermannia furnishes beautiful sub- 
jects for microscopic examination. 

THE FERN ALLIANCE. 
The Horse-tail Family. 

(Equisetace^.) 

Leafless perennial plants with articulated, hollow, fur- 
rowed stems and whorled-joiuted branches. Fructification 
generally in terminal cone-like catkins consisting of spore- 
cases containing spores, the latter furnished with four clavate 
filaments which are elastic, and on the emission of the spores 



110 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



from their cases a spontaneous motion may be observed when 
viewed under the microscope, which continues for some time. 
They are found in most parts of the world, and are common in 
this country in ditches and waste places by road-sides. They 
are the only modern representatives of the remarkable fos- 
silized remains called Calamites. They have no medical 
properties, but are imported under the name of Dutch rushes, 
and are used for polishing furniture, their usefulness in this 
way being due to the minute particles of flint, or silex, with 
which their stems are coated. 

The Club-moss Family. 

(Lycopodiace^.) 

Plants consisting of lirm, erect or creeping stems, which 
are simple, or branched, often flagelliform and pendulous, 

■ furnished with acerose, rusciform, or jungermannia-like 
sessile leaves. Spore-cases, produced either in the axils of 
the leaves (Fig. 11, b) or in terminal catkin-like spikes. 
This family is widely distributed, and is found in both tropi- 
cal and temperate regions. In the northern parts of Britain 
they are not uncommon on moorlands and hillsides. They 
are liable to great variability under different climatic in- 
fluences, which has led botanists to differ as to the probable 
number of species, some enumerating upwards of 400, while 
others do not admit more than half that number. 

/ The spores of Lycopodium clavatum are highly inflammable, 
/ and have been used to produce artificial lightning- flashes in 

■ theatres. Some species from tropical America are highly 
hygrometrical, as Selaginella-lepidophylla, which grows in a 
circular roseate form, expanding while the air is in a moist 
state, but rolling up like a ball when it becomes dry. It re- 
mains green and acts in this peculiar manner for years after 
having been gathered. About thirty years ago a great 
number were imported from Mexico and sold in London 
under the name of " Eose of Jericho," and more recently as 
the "Kesurrection Plant." Many species of Selcginella have 



THE adder's tongue FAMILY. 



Ill 



become great favourites with amateur fern-growers. S. ser- 
pens, a native of Jamaica, is remarkable for a peculiar habit 
of changing its colour during the night, the whole plant be- 
coming white, and when growing in a mass is visible at a 
considerable distance, changing again to green on the re- 
turn of daylight. 

The Pepper-wort Family. 

(Marsileace^.) 

Plants floating, or growing in water, rarely on land, having 
grass or trefoil-like leaves. Their spore-cases are produced 
either from the rhizome, or the stem, or on the footstalks of 
the leaves. (Fig. 11, b.) This small family is composed of 
from twenty to thirty species, the greater number being 
natives of temperate countries of the Northern hemisphere. 
They are found floating on the surface, or growing at the 
bottom of pools and lakes. Several species of Isoetes are 
found on land. They are of no economic use except Mar- 
silea macropus, which occupies large tracts of flooded land in 
the interior of Australia. When dried up the spore- cases, 
which are about the size of wheat-grains, are found in large 
quantities and used as food by the natives. It came into 
notice some years ago, in the ill-fated Burke and Wills 
expedition, under the name of Nardoo. 

M. quadrifolia is a native of some parts of Europe, but in 
this country the family is represented hj Pilularia glohulifera 
and Isoetes lacustris, two plants with grass-like leaves, grow- 
ing at the bottom of shallow pools and lakes. 

The Adder's Tongue Family. 

(Ophioglossaceje.) 

Plants with leafy erect or pendulous fronds growing on 
the earth or on trees. The spores are contained in valved 
cases (Fig. 11, c), forming simple or branched spikes, rising 
from the surface of the frond. In this country the family 
is represented by the common Adder's tongue {Ophioglossum 



112 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



vulgatiim) and Moonwort {Botrychium lunaria). The former 
is extensively collected by herb-gatherers, and being muci- 
laginous is used in the preparation of salves ; its ancient 
reputed virtues, as well as those of the moonwort, are merely 
imaginary. A tropical species, Opliioglossum pendulum, grows 
on trees, and hangs down like ribands, four to six feet in 
length ; 0. palmatum, also growing in similar situations, has 
its leathery fronds divided in lobes like the hand. 

FiLiCES (Ferns). 

Ferns are plants consisting of stem and leaves, the latter 
called fronds, which are either simple and entire or 
variously divided and spirally unfold, being traversed by 
veins composed of indurated tissue. From different 
parts of their underside or margin are produced clusters 
or lines of spore-cases, called so7'i, the cases being mem- 
branous, and furnished with a jointed elasticring (annulus), 
or horny and ringless. The sori are either naked or 
furnished with membranous coverings, called indusia. 
The fronds vary in size from one inch to large decom- 
pound fronds fifteen or more feet in length, some having 
creeping thread-like stems, while others have tree-like 
stems, fifty or more feet in height, bearing at the top a 
crown of leaves. 

The Ringless Fern Family. 

, (Marattiace^.) 

Spore-cases destitute of a ring, either free or united, forming 
valved cysts, each opening by a pore or sHt (Fig. 11, c). 
These plants have often very large fronds, the different parts 
of which vary in such a manner as to have led botanists to 
describe a great number of species. Probably their number 
does not exceed thirty, most of which are natives of the tropics, 
one species extending to New Zealand and Norfolk Island. 



THE RINGED FERNS. 



113 



The stems of Marattia and Angiopteris are of a mucila- 
ginous mealy nature, and are eaten by the natives of some 
of the Pacific Islands. 

Ferns rank as one of the widest spread families in the 
vegetable kingdom, being found in greater or less numbers 
in all cHmates between the most northern and southern limits 
of vegetation, and at elevations ranging from the sea level to 
14,000 or 15,000 feet within the tropics. Comparatively 
few species are found in open, thinly wooded places, such 
districts being often occupied by one of the most gregarious 
and abundant of all ferns — the common brake (Pteris aqui- 
lifia), which occupies large tracts of the earth's surface. 
With regard to the number of species in this family, great 
diversity of opinion exists, much of what has already been 
written about them having been derived from portions of 
fronds only, which are so variable that even parts of the same 
fi'ond have been described as distinct species. In the Species 
Filicum of Sir William Hooker, nearly 2300 are described ; 
but as new forms are continually being discovered, 2500 may 
with propriety be given as the approximate number. 

THE EINGED FEKN FAMILY. 

(POLTPODIACE^.) 

Fronds bearing spore cases {sporangia) on their imder sur- 
face or margin, or on contracted {rachiforiii) fronds. Spore 
cases, membranous, generally pedicellate, and furnished with 
a vertical or horizontal jointed ring {anniiliis) . 

This family comprehends the greater number of known 
ferns, and presents two very distinct modes of growth. The 
first, Eremohrya, having the fronds jointed (articulated) with 
the axis of growth {rhizome) ; the second, Desmohrya^ in 
which the fronds are adherent and continuous with the axis, 
forming a sarmentum or erect caudex. 

The following are the sectional divisions of this family: — 



I 



114 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Sub-family I. — Polypode^. 
Spore cases memhranous, furnished with a vertical ring. 
This comprehends the majority of ferns, including the 
whole of the British species, with the exception of about 
four. 

Sub-family II. — Gleichene^. 

Spore cases furnished tvith a horizontal ring. Sori rounds 
dorsal. 

This is principally represented by the genus Gleichenia, 
natives within or near the tropics, their fronds being conti- 
nuous and repeatedly forked. Matonia pectinata is one of 
the most rare and beautiful of all ferns, and is found only on 
Mount Ophir, in the peninsula of Malacca. Its fronds are 
borne on slender foot-stalks (stipes) from five to six feet high, 
averaging two feet or more in width, divided into pectinate 
pinnse, much resembling a fan-leaved palm. 

Sub-family III. — Hymenophylle^. 

Sj)ore cases furnished with a horizontal ring produced in 
marginal cysts on memhranous fronds. 

This contains the Filmy Ferns, represented by numerous 
species of Hymenophyllum and Trichomanes, of which three 
species are natives of this country, but rare and local. 

Sub-family IY. — Osmundace^. 

Spore cases produced on spikes or panicles, rarely dorsal, 
furnished with an apical, horizontal ring, which is some- 
times rudimentary only. 

This section is represented in this country by Osmunda 
regalis, and in tropical America by the genera Anemia and 
Schizta. 

Although the species of this family are both numerous 
and variable, they possess but few qualities of much impor- 
tance in the arts or domestic economy. Many are used me- 
dicinally in their respective countries, some being more or 



THE RINGED FERNS. 



115 



less astringent, emetic, or purgative. The following are a 
few of the most important. Adiantum capillus -veneris is 
widely dispersed through both tropical and temperate coun- 
tries, varying slightly in form in different localities. In Italy, a 
syrup called Capillaire is made from it, and used medicinally 
for coughs, &c. Lastrea Filix-mas^ one of the most common 
British species, has long had great medical reputation for its 
astringent and vermifuge qualities. 

Common Bracken [Pteris aquilind). Its thick, creeping 
underground stems are of some utility as food ; but it is only 
in Australasia that it is much used by the natives. Its ashes 
contain a large amount of alkali. 

Cyathea medullaris is one of the noblest of tree ferns, in 
some of the Pacific isles and on the east coast of Australia 
and New Zealand, where it forms an important article of food 
to the natives. The part eaten is the pulpy substance in the 
centre of the stem. This is of a starchy, mucilaginous nature, 
and to obtain it the trees have to be destroyed. 

Balantium culcita. The beautiful, soft, silky hairs of this 
plant are used by the natives of Madeira and the Azores for 
stuffing cushions. 

Cihotium Menziesit, and probably one or two other species, 
natives of the Sandwich Islands, produce the substance called 
Pulu, which is the woolly covering of their stems. Some years 
ago this substance was collected in large quantities, and ship- 
loads of it sent to Australia and California. The hairs of 
Cihotium Barometz and other Eastern species are used as 
styptics. C. Barometz is a native of China and other parts 
of eastern Asia. Its woolly stems lying on the ground re- 
semble some wool-clad animal, which gave rise to the fabulous 
story of " Barometz^'' or " Tartarian Bamb^'' being described as 
" an animal fixed to one spot, and eating the grass around it." 

Ferns have of late years become great faVburites with 
cultivators. The number of exotic species already intro- 
duced and cultivated in this country amount to about 1000. 
Forty-six species are considered to be natives of Britain, but 
they are also found in other countries. 

i2 



116 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



With regard to the fertilization of Ferns and Cryptogams in 
general little can here be said. The microscope has revealed 
the presence of organs that apparently perform the same 
functions that stamens and pistils do in Phsenogams, 

The Fern spore vegetates in the form of a simple, oblong 
cell, from which other cells are successively produced, ulti- 
mately forming a thin green membrane, called the prothallium, 
which lies nearly flat, and attaches itself by the aid of fine 
spongioles to the surface. When of full size it is round or 
oblong, varying from a quarter to half an inch in diameter, 
and having the appearance of a small foliaceous lichen. In 
the progress of its growth peculiar cells are formed on its 
under surface of two kinds — one called Antheridia, the other 
Arcliegonia ; the first containing round cells called sperm 
cells, which contain minute worm-like bodies, that issue from 
the cells when arrived at maturity. The cells of the Arche- 
gonia differ considerably in their structure from the Anthe- 
ridia ; they contain an embryonal sac, which at a certain 
period protriides from the cell, and with which the moving 
spermatozoids are said to come in contact, and thus produce 
fertilization. Soon after this the embryo sac is changed, a 
bud is formed, and ultimately a young fern plant is gradually 
developed ; in time the prothallium dies. 



117 



DIVISION n.— PHiENOGAMS. 

FLOWERING plants with vascular structure com- 
plete. Organs of reproduction (stamens and pistils) 
evident, generating an embryo within an ovule, which 
becomes a seed, the embryo being furnished with one, 
two, or rarely more cotyledons. 

This grand division includes all plants furnished with 
stamens and pistils, which with their vascular structure 
distinguishes them from Cryptogams. The first, or pri- 
mary divisions, are characterized by their cotyledons, 
the mode by which their stems increase in diameter, and 
in the leaves having free, or netted veins, which with 
few exceptions to these characters, admits of classify^ 
ing the whole of the flowering plants under Exogens 
and Endogens. 

The principal exceptions to parts of the above cha- 
racters are the Yam and Sarsaparilla families, agreeing 
with Endogens in their monocotyledonous embryo, and 
with Exogens in their stems having a woody axis, true 
bark, and net-veined leaves. This difference induced 
Dr. Lindley to consider them as a distinct class, which 
he called Dictyoge^s, but this view is not adopted by al 
botanists. In Exogens they may be viewed as related 
to the Moon-seed family, and in Endogens to the 
Asparagus section of the Lily family, where I have 
placed them in this work. 



118 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



CLASS III.— ENDOGEITS. 

Embryo with one cotyledon. Leaves with simple or 
forked, free not netted veins. Stems homogeneous, with- 
out true bark. 

Fig. 12. 




a, h. Germination of Seed ; c. Section of Palm Stem ; 
d. Leaf showing the parallel free veins. 

This class contains the Grass, Rush, Lily, Palm, and 
Pine-apple families, and is readily known by the leaves 
having parallel, or divergent veins, as well as by the one 
seed lobe, which characters distinguish them from 
Exogens (fig. 12, a, b, c, d). 

With the exception of the Arum family, the normal 
number of the development of parts is 3, or its multiple, 
thus the floral §-, separate or more or less united 
stamens 3 — 6 — 9. With the excep^tion of the Grass 
alliance the ovary is 3-celled, and its being inferior or 
superior presents the most important divisional cha- 
racters. 



ri.4. 



THE GRASS FAMILY. 



119 



Section I. Ovary Superior. 
The Grass Family. 

(^GraminecB.) 

Annual, or perennial plants, with narrow leaves known 
as grass, generally producing hollow flowering stems (^culm), 
which are jointed, with sheathing, alternate leaves, being 
either annual as the Hay-grass, or perennial as the Bamboo. 
Flowers terminal, in spikes, racemes, or on simple or com- 
pound panicles ; each flower instead of having a true calyx 
and corolla, being composed of three kinds of chafF-like 
scales (glumes or pale«) anterior to each other, stamens 3 — 6, 
rarely 2. Filaments and anthers slender. Pistils 2, feathery, 
seated on a single ovary, which becomes the seed or corn 
grain. Flowers sometimes unisexual 

The grasses are the most important of all plants to man. 
Naturally they occupy vast plains and mountain slopes, pro- 
ducing corn for his bread, and food for his flocks and herds. 
Nearly 4000 species are enumerated, of which about ISO are 
natives of Britain. They vary considerably in size, Aira 
prcBCox and Knappia agrostidea not exceeding two inches in 
height, while the graceful Bamboo attains a height of 100 feet. 

Grasses contain sugar and silica in their stems, and starch 
in the albumen of their seeds ; sugar being most abundant 
in the Sugar-cane, and the silica becoming obvious in the 
burning of hay or corn stacks, when it is found vitrified in 
masses. But few species possess poisonous quahties. 

Wheat {Triticum vulgare). A well known annual grass 
producing the staff of life to millions of people in temperate 
regions. The various uses of wheaten flour are too numerous 
and well known to require description. Newly ground flour 
undergoes the process of dressing, by which the skin (bran) 
embryo, and other rough particles (pollard), of the grain are 
separated from the pure flour. " Semolina or Semola " is 
the hard particles of Italian flour, and is imported into this 
country. "Macaroni " and " Vermicelli " form a great part 



120 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



of the food of the lower classes, in Italy, and are made from 
a small-grained wheat, grown in that country for the 
purpose. 

Straw is extensively used for making hats, bonnets, fancy 
baskets, and other articles of domestic use or ornament in 
this country, constituting the chief trade of Dunstable and 
St. Albans. Eecent experiments and observations tend to 
show that wheat originated from the repeated cultivation of 
a harsh, decumbent grass, uEcjilops ovata, native of the south 
of Europe. If such is really the case, the change must have 
taken place in early times, for we read that " Reuben went 
in the days of the wheat harvest," which shows that wheat 
was cultivated 3600 years ago. Wheat grains, in conjunction 
with flint implements, have been found in the deposited re- 
mains of the recently discovered lake villages of Switzerland ; 
which fact proves that it was grown in Europe in prehistoric 
times. Since the extension of navigation wheat has be- 
come an important agent in the spread of civilization 
throughout the world. It is the weapon in the hands of the 
white man that enables him to gain possession of the black 
man's forest and hunting grounds, which become corn-fields, 
the aboriginal races gradually retiring and becoming extinct. 
In this country wheat is extensively cultivated, but the pro- 
duce is far below the quantity required, and great importa- 
tions come from the ports of the Baltic, Black Sea, North 
America, and within the last few years from the Australian 
colonies. Several varieties are cultivated. 

Spelt {Triticum spelta). A hard-grained wheat similar to 
barley, and is supposed to be the " rye" cultivated in the 
time of Moses. T. compositum, has a compound head formed 
of several ears, and as it grows in Egypt agrees with the 
seven ears of corn that came up on one stalk as seen by 
Pharaoh in his dream.* 

Barley {Hordeum distichum, two-rowed, and H. hexas- 
tichum, six-rowed barley). Annual grass is extensively culti- 



* Genesis, chap. xli. ver. 5. 



THE GRASS FAMILY. 



121 



vated in all temperate countries from the earliest times, as we 
read that the flax and the barley was smitten."* Barley 
is also used for making bread. When the thin covering 
of the grain is removed, leaving the soft part or the albumen 
entire, it forms the well known Scotch and pearl barley. It 
also plays a most important part in the social habits of the 
people of this country, being converted into " malt," from 
which the beverages ale and porter are made, and by distil- 
lation, gin and whisky. 

Oat (Avena sativa). There are many varieties of this 
plant, and experience has shown that all have originated from 
the wild oat (J., fatua). Oats are extensively cultivated 
throughout the whole of Northern Europe, oatmeal forming 
a substantial food for the people in Scotland ; but the culti- 
vation of wheat has in many parts superseded it. " Emden 
groats" are the grains in a prepared state. 

Rye (Secale cereale). This is said to grow wild in the 
eastern parts of Europe, especially in the Crimea. It has 
been long cultivated in Germany and more northern countries, 
where it is extensively used for food. In this country it is 
but little grown. 

Rye is subject to a disease called " ergot " (see p. 103), and 
is then called spurred rye. 

Maize or Indian Corn (Zea Mays). This belongs to the 
class Monoecia of Linnaeus, having stamens and pistils in 
separate flowers on the same plant. It is a strong-groAving 
annual grass of a cane-like appearance, attaining the height of 
4 — 6 feet, and is terminated by thick cylindrical heads, 
bearing corn grains, the whole being enclosed by a sheath or 
spathe, and are called cobs." Previous to the discovery of 
America Indian corn was cultivated throughout that conti- 
nent in places favourable to its growth, and is now grown in 
all warm countries, forming in many a staple article of trade. 
Large quantities are imported to this country, principally 
from the United States. When young the heads are boiled 



* Exodus, chap. ix. ver. 31. 



122 



DOMESTIC BOTAKY. 



or roasted, and eaten as a vegetable : a fine flour prepared from 
it and called Maizena, has lately come into use. In favour- 
able summers it grows freely and ripens its " cobs" in this 
country. 

Rice {Oryza sativa). Rice is the staple food of millions of 
people in India, China, and other Eastern countries. In India 
it is also used to feed the domesticated elephants. It is 
cultivated on low lying level lands, as at some periods of its 
growth it requires to be flooded with water, for which 
purpose canals traverse whole districts of what are called 
"paddy fields." In some seasons when rain fails, famine is 
the consequence, as is frequently experienced in India. Rice 
is extensively used in this country, large quantities being im- 
ported from India and other Eastern countries, as also from 
the United States, from which latter place it comes under the 
name of " Carolina rice," which is considered of the best 
quality. 

Canadian Rice {Zizania aquaticd). A native of North 
America, growing in shallow waters. The blades float, and 
the panicles of flowers rise above the surface and produce a 
grain similar to, but longer and narrower than oats. It forms 
a great part of the food of some of the Indian tribes. 

Manna Grass {Poa Jluitans). A native of this country, 
and common throughout Europe and Australia. It grows 
in water. Its seeds are sweet, and the substance called 
"manna croup" is made from them in Poland and Ger- 
many. 

Guinea Corn, or Millet [Sorghum vulgare). This is exten- 
sively cultivated in tropical and subtropical countries, and 
was known in Palestine in the time of Ezekiel.* It is made 
into a kind of bread, and in India is known by the name 
" dhourra." It has some resemblance to " Indian corn," but 
is not so strong, producing its small grains in long cylindrical 
heads. Carpet brooms and some brushes are made from the 
stiff seed spikes. 



* Ch. iv. ver. 9. 



THE GRASS FAMILY. 



123 



Panicum italicum and P. miliaceum are commonly grown 
in Europe as millet. 

Sugar {Saccharum officinarum). A strong cane-stemmed 
grass, 10 — 12 feet high, producing a large feathery plume of 
flowers. It is a native of the Eastern hemisphere, but like 
many other plants that have been long under cultivation, 
the cradle of its birth is not well known. It is found wild, 
as well as cultivated throughout tropical and subtropical 
Asia, and the islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It 
was first known in India, from whence it is said to have been 
brought to Europe by the Venetians about the middle of the 
12th century, and was early cultivated in the islands of the 
Mediterranean. It was afterwards introduced into Spain 
and Portugal, and also to the continent of America, becoming 
firmly established by the middle of the 16th century. It 
has acted an important part in the social condition of the 
world, the native Indian race, especially in America, being 
driven before it, and the curly-haired African negro established 
in his place, originally under the bonds of slavery. The 
great supply of sugar imported to this country comes from 
the West Indies and Brazil, as also from the Mauritius, of 
which island it forms the staple product. Sugar is the ex- 
pressed juice of the cane, which by boiling and other pro- 
cesses becomes crystallized, and is called " brown sugar ;" 
after being refined and cast in conical moulds it is loaf or 
" lump sugar." The uncrystallized portion is called " treacle" 
or molasses. From the scum and rough portions of the 
latter rum is obtained by distillation. The sugar-cane is 
probably the " sweet cane from a far country" spoken of in 
Jeremiah, chap. vi. ver. 20. 

Bamboo {Bamhusa arundinacea). This is known as the 
common bamboo of India, but there are other species of the 
same habit. It is a perennial grass, the stems of which rise 
from a strong rootstock, first appearing like large heads of 
asparagus, and growing at a rapid rate. Two shoots in the 
Palm House at Kew were daily measured, and in 70 days 
they had attained the height of 36 feet. In Jamaica it is 



124 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



known to attain the height of 100 feet in little more than five 
months. The diameter of the cane varies from 3 — 6 inches, 
and when about 30 feet high it begins to throw out lateral 
branches, and produce its true grass leaves. Throughout the 
warm parts of India it forms vast impregnable thickets or 
jungle, and there as well as in China it is converted into 
j nearly every article of domestic use, from ornamental trinkets 
\ to house building, fences, pipes for conveying water, and 
various purposes in agriculture. There are several species 
of bamboo with stems no thicker than the finger, which on 
account of their smoothness and hard texture are used for 
various purposes. In the warm parts of tropical America a 
species is found (5. guadua) which is allied to the Indian 
species. 

Blow-pipe {Arundinaria Schomburgkli). A hollow reed- 
like grass, similar in growth to the " bamboo." It is a native 
of the country bordering on the head waters of the Orinoco 
and Amazon. It rises to a height of from 50 — 60 feet, with 
a diameter of about 1^ inch. For the first 16 feet the stem 
is quite smooth and without a joint. This part forms the 
Indian's rifle. The natives use it by simply placing a 
poisoned arrow in the tube, which is directed towards the 
object, a blast from the mouth sends the fatal shaft with great 
rapidity and unerring aim. The poison soon takes effect, 
and any bird or animal struck by it speedily dies, but the 
flesh is not rendered unwholesome. 

Esparto grass {Lygeum spartum). A strong perennial 
grass, having a rush-like appearance, growing in tufts. It is 
a native of the Mediterranean shores, particularly those of 
Spain, Barbary, and Algeria, where it covers vast tracts of 
sand plains. In Spain it is used in the manufacture of hats, 
mats, baskets, and the hke, and of late years has become of 
great repute for paper-making. The grass being of a soft 
nature, is readily brought into a pulpy state fit for the latter 
purpose, and large quantities are imported to this country. 

Lemon grass {Andropogon Schcenantlius). A perennial 
tufted grass, growing wild, as well as cultivated in many parts 



THE GRASS FAMILY. 



J25 



of India. It yields an essential oil whicli is used in perfumery, 
pomatum, &c. 

Cuscus, Koosa, or Khus {Andropogon muricatvs). A grass 
of great utility in India, its fine fibrous roots being woven 
into a thin fabric, used to keep the flies, mosquitoes, as well 
as hot dry winds, and dust out of verandahs ; being moistened 
cccasionally, they emit a pleasant perfume. It is also used 
for perfuming Egyptian baths. A. calamus-aroniaticus^ from 
whicli an aromatic oil is obtained, is allied to the preceding. 
This plant is supposed to be the " sweet calamus " of 
Scripture.* A. gryllus. A strong grass, with stiiF, wiry roots, 
native of tlie South of Europe. Large quantities of the roots 
are imported as chiendent,'^ and are used by brushmakers 
in the manufacture of toilet and other brushes. 

Tussack grass {Dactylis ccespitosa). A strong tufted 
species, a native of the Falkland Islands, where it grows in 
great abundance. It has long, broad leaves, and these toge- 
ther mth the fibrous roots are sweet. Cattle are extremely 
fond of it, but from their eating out the centre to the very 
root, it will probably soon become extinct. About 25 years 
ago attempts were made to introduce its cultivation into this 
country, but the climate was found too dry for it. It has, 
however, succeeded on 'the west coast of Scotland, espe- 
cially in the Island of Lewis. 

Hay. In this country hay fields contain several kinds of 
grass, such as Eye grass {Lolium perenne and L. italicum), 
Cat's-tail grass (Phleum, pratense, Poa pratense, Cynosurus 
cristatus), and the sweet-scented vernal grass (Anthoxanthum 
odoratum), which gives the fine sweet scent to the hay. 
Several other grasses are also common to hay fields and 
pastures. 

Canary seed {Phalaris canariensis). An annual, growing 
to the height of 2 — 2 J feet, having its flowers in heads similar 
to hops. It grows freely in this country, and produces the 



* Exodus, chap. xxx. ver. 23. 



126 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



well known canary seed given to cage birds. In nature some 
grasses act an important part in keeping back the inroads of 
the sea, even gaining possession of large tracts of the shore, 
as may be seen on many parts of the low coast of England 
and Scotland, the chief being mat grass or Marum (^Ammophila 
arenarid), Lyme grass (Elymus arenarius, and E. genicu- 
latus). 

Eeeds {Phragmites communis). Native throughout Europe, 
and growing abundantly in this country on the banks of the 
Thames, in some parts forming extensive thickets. The 
reeds are cut and used for many purposes, thatching, &c. 

This, or an allied species, may be considered to be the 
" reed "* or " rush " mentioned in several parts of the Bible, 
but not the paper reed, or the reed used at the crucifixion. 

Donax (Arundo donax). A broad-leaved reed, in habit 
resembling the bamboo, but not exceeding 8 — 10 feet high. 
It is a native of the south of Europe, and also grows in 
Palestine. It is used for many domestic purposes, walking- 
sticks and measuring rods are made of it, and it is probably 
the reed on which the "sponge" filled "with vinegar" was 
placed. (See Hyssop.) 

Couch grass {Triticum repens). This is a well known pest 
to gardeners and farmers, soon overrunning gardens and 
fields, and if not speedily checked it becomes very difficult to 
eradicate. 

Cynodon dactylon. A creeping pointed grass having 
flowers on fingered spikes. It is a native of this country, 
but rare. In many countries it occupies large areas and 
may truly be styled an invader. It covers the Sunderbunds, 
near Calcutta, and although showing very little above the 
surface, its roots are thickly matted together, and being 
sweet are collected daily in large quantities and taken into 
Calcutta for feeding horses. 

Darnel {Lolium temulentum). A strong-growing grass, 
similar to "rye," often becoming a troublesome weed, espe- 



* Matthew, chap, xxvii. ver. 48. Mark, chap. xv. ver. 36. 



THE SEDGE FAMILY. 



127 



naWj in corn j^elds. If its grains are accidentally ground 
with the corn they produce serious effects on those who par- 
take of it. This may be considered the only poisonous or 
deleterious grass native of this country. It is probably the 
tares" spoken of in St. Matthew's Gospel, chap. xiii. ver. 25, 
26, 27, and 29. 

The Sedge Family. 

(CYPERACEiE.) 

Annual or perennial grass-like plants growing in tufts, 
generally having harsh, sharp-edged, sheathing leaves, and 
solid flower-stems without joints. The stems are either 
cylindrical or angular. Flowers monoecious or dioecious, 
generally in spikelets, or catkin-like heads, each flower con- 
sisting of scale-hke bracts or glumes, as in grasses. Stamens 
generally 3. Pistils 1. Style bifid or trifid. Fruit a 
1 -seeded, hard, bony nut, often angular. 

This family consists of about 2000 species, found, like 
grasses, in all parts of the world, even extending to the 
utmost limits of vegetation in the polar regions. They 
grow in pools, ditches, and on river banks, commons, waste 
places, mountain tops, and dry sandy parts of the sea-shore. 

They diff'er from grasses in having no fecula, or sweet 
principle, and are almost useless as food to either man or 
cattle. Some few have a medical reputation in their native 
countries, but none are of any special importance. 

In this country the family is represented by numerous 
species of the genus Carex^ commonly known as sedges. 

Several species of Cyperus have tuberous roots, and are 
cultivated in India and China for food. C. esculentus is 
cultivated in the south of Europe. 

Cyperus textilis and C. corymbosus are extensively em- 
ployed in India for making ropes and mats for covering 
floors, and for other domestic purposes. 

Bulrush (^Scirpus lacustris) grows abundantly in ditches 
and watery places in this and other countries of Europe and 
in Western Asia. It is extensively used for making mats and 
ropes, but more especially for chair bottoms and hassocks. 



128 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Papyrus {Papyrus antiquorum). Supposed to be tho 
" BuUrush" of the Nile, of which the " ark" of the chile 
Moses, as also the vessels spoken of in Isaiah* were made, 
but it appears to be of more ancient date, it being the plant 
\from which the papyri, or paper, was made, and upon which 
the records found in the Egyptian tombs were written. 

It grows in the Lake of Galilee and other parts of Syria, 
and is "the paper reed by the brooks. "•[■ It has strong 
roots or rather rhizomes, which grow in the mud and throw 
up smooth, triangular stems 6 to 10 feet high, and about an 
inch in diameter. The interior of these stems consists of 
white pith, and they are terminated by a round head of 
slender grass-like panicles of flowers. Good examples may 
be seen in the hot-houses at Kew. 

Cotton grass {Eriophorum angustifoUum), and other 
species, are common in wet places in this country. When 
perfect its seeds are furnished with cotton-like down, which 
is sometimes used for stuffing cushions. Carex arenaria 
grows in tufts forming hillocks, and binds the moving sands 
of the seashore. 

Nearly allied to Cyperacese is a small family called 
Xyridacece, the chief distinctive character of which is that 
their floral envelopes are more fully developed and coloured, 
growing in terminal, scaly heads. Seventy species are 
enumerated all widely distributed, being chiefly natives of 
warm regions. They have no special uses. 

The Cat's-tail or Bur Eeed Family. 

(Typhace^.) 

Aquatic, marshy, perennial plants, having reed-like flower 
stems, and narrow or broad sword-shaped leaves. Flowers 
monoecious, produced in dense cylindrical heads consisting of 
numerous florets each formed of hair or scale-like glumes. 
Fruit a small nut. 



* Isaiah, chap, xviii. ver. 2. 



t Isaiah, chap. xix. ver. 7. 



-THE PIPE-WORT FAMILY. 



129 



About twelve species compose this Order. They are widely- 
dispersed, and are represented in this country by the " Reed 
Mace" {Typha latifolid), which is also widely distributed 
throughout Europe, North Asia, S. Africa, and N. America. 
It was at one time abundant in the marshes around London, 
and not many years ago the last remnant was seen in a bog 
between Shepherd's Bush and Kensington. The locality is 
now occupied by railways and fine mansions. 

They have no special uses. 

The Restiad Family. 

(Restiace^.) 

Plants with slender reed-like stems, often two-edged, and 
sheathed, from which tufts of little branchlets are produced, 
having in some cases grass-like leaves — while in others these 
are absent, or not developed. Flowers monoecious, or dioe- 
cious in spikes, or heads. Stamens 2 — 3, included in glumes 
or scales, as in grasses. This is a curious family of plants in 
habit, having an intermediate position between grasses, 
sedges, and rushes. Above 150 species are enumerated, 
natives chiefly of South Africa, Australia, and South America. 
They have no special uses except in their wiry stems being 
made into baskets. 

The Pipe-wort Family. 

(Eriocaulace^.) 

Perennial plants growing in water, having grassy, sheathing, 
spongy leaves, and globular heads of minute flowers, pro- 
duced on long footstalks. Two hundred species are enume- 
rated, chiefly natives of the tropics and Australia, several of 
North America, and represented in this country by Eriocau- 
lon septangular a native of the lakes in the Isle of Skye 
and Connemara. They possess no special qualities, but are 
botanically interesting. 



130 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



THE EUSH AND POND- WEED ALLIANCE. 
The Rush Family. 

(JUNCACE^.) 

Stemless herbaceous plants with leaves and flower-stalks 
rising from a creeping rhizome-like root, or with a decumbent 
or erect palm like stem. Leaves flat (generally channelled) 
cylindrical, or triquetrous. Flowers in spikes, panicles, or 
compound heads. Sepals and petals glumaceous, sometimes 
coloured yellow or blue. Fruit usually a dry 3-valved 
capsule with nut-like seeds. 

This family consists of about 200 species, widely distributed 
over both hemispheres and widely diverse as to habit. In 
the northern hemisphere they are represented by diiFerent 
species of Rush (^Juncus), some of which extend to the Arctic 
regions. About 20 species are natives of Britain, the most 
abundant being J. effusiis, J. conglomeratus^ and J. acutus, 
which grow in ditches and marshy places. 

They are extensively used for making chair bottoms, 
hassocks, mats, baskets, and the pith is used as " wicks" for 
''rushlights," or night-candles. They are but little used 
either for food or medicinally. 

Asphodel (Narthecium ossifragum). A beautiful, perennial 
native plant, with leaves like a leek, and pretty yellow 
flowers. It was supposed to cause disease in sheep, and 
hence received the specific name " ossifragum," which means 
" bone breaking." 

Palmet {Prionium palmitd). A remarkable plant, native 
of S. Africa, growing in deep waters ; it has serrated leaves 
2 — 3 feet long and about 1 inch broad, which by their suc- 
cessive development and sheathing bases form a stem, which 
varies in length according to its age, from 6 — 12 feet, 
and 3 inches in diameter. It generally lies slanting in the 
water, with its crown of leaves rising above the surface, and 
when numerous the water has the appearance of a field of 
pineapple plants. The whole stem consists of a fine fibre, 



THE FLOWERING EUSH FAMILY. 181 



which is capable of being converted into paper, and it has 
been used for brushes. 

Grass tree (Kingia australis). A remarkable plant, native 
of the south and south-west of Australia, growing in dry 
places. It has a trunk a foot in diameter, composed of 
the bases of the hard, three-sided, grass-like leaves. The 
leaves are successively produced from the top of the stem, 
and curve downwards. The older ones fall away, or more 
often are burnt away by the grass-fires of the natives, leaving 
the charred and blackened stems which in old plants attain 
the height of 6 — 8 feet. 

The flowers are borne in dense round heads, on a footstalk 
about a foot long, several rising from the crown of leaves. 

It possesses no special economic uses. 

The family is represented in New Zealand by the genus 
Astelia, tufted plants with pineapple-like leaves. 

THE WATER PLANTAIN OR POND-WEED 
ALLIANCE. 

This alliance consists of about 1 50 species of widely dis- 
tributed soft grass, or broad leaved herbs ; generally growing 
in water or wet places. But few possess economic properties 
or uses. 

The Flowering Rush Family. 

(BUTOMACE^.) 

This, with the two following families, are considered by 
some botanists as one only. They are marsh, or floating 
plants, found in the tropical and temperate zones. The 
present family consists of about 6 species, and is represented 
in this country by the Flowering Rush (Butomus umhellatus.) 

Hydrocleis Humholdtii. A native of tropical America, 
having oval, heart-shaped leaves, which float on the surface 
of the water in which it groAvs. It produces large, showy 

K 2 



132 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



yellow flowers singly on a long footstalk. It is a well known 
plant in the hot-houses of this country, and has been knoAvn 
to flourish in the open air when planted in the waste tepid 
water from manufactories. When seen in quantity its 
numerous golden flowers have a beautiful effect. 

The Water Plantain Family. 

(Alismace^.) 

The "Water plantain" {Alisma plantago) is common in 
ponds and ditches in this country, as is also the "Water Ar- 
row" [Sagittaria sagitti folia). It is not so common as the last. 
Its leaves resemble a broad arrow, whence its name is derived. 

The Pond- Weed Family. 

(JUNCAGINACE^.) 

Is represented in this country by Triglochin palustre^ and 
several species of Potamogeton, commonly known as " pond 
weeds." Aponogeton distachyon is a native of the Cape of 
Good Hope. It has oblong, floating leaves, and a forked 
spike of pretty white flowers. It will thrive in the open air 
in this country. Allied to this plant in general appearance 
is the "Lattice Leaf" (Ouvirandra fenestralis\ a native of 
shallow waters in the Island of Madagascar. Its leaves have 
long footstalks, which grow from a rhizome, and vary from 
12 to 18 inches in length, and fi'om 2 to 6 inches in breadth 
They consist of nerves only, which form a skeleton leaf, the 
openings being square like lattice-work. It produces a 
forked spike of flowers similar to Aponogeton. This plant 
was introduced in 1855, and was successfully cultivated a 
Kew, producing leaves 3 feet in length. 



133 



The Frog-bit Family. 

(Hydrochaeidace^) . 

Plants growing at the bottom, or floating on the surface 
of water. Leaves heart-shaped, oval, or long like grass, 
sometimes sword-shaped. Flowers generally inconspicuous. 
In alliance with this are the families "iVa^rfacece," and 

Zosteracece,'''' water plants of nearly the same habit as the 
preceding. These three families consist of about 50 species, 
Avidely distributed throughout temperate and tropical regions 
in both hemispheres, and gromng either in fresh water or at 
the mouth of tidal rivers. 

Frog-bit {Hydrocliaris morsus-rance). A native of this 
country, growing in pools or shallow ditches. It has heart- 
shaped leaves produced on floating stems, and its white 
fibrous roots show the circulation of the sap when viewed 
through the microscope. This phenomenon may also be 
observed in the leaves of VaUisneria spiralis, a native of the 
south of Europe (see page 68). This plant grows at the 
bottom of the water, throwing up long tape-like leaves ; a 
portion of their upper extremity generally floats on the sur- 
face. It is dioecious, the male flowers being produced close 
to the base of the plant ; these when about to expand become 
detached, and rise to the surface, where they float. The 
female flowers are borne on long thread-like peduncles, 
and after they become fertilized by the pollen from the 
male flowers, the slender stem coils spirally, drawing the 
young fruit to the bottom, where it becomes further 
developed. 

Water Soldier [Stratiotes aloides). A plant resembling a 
small aloe, floating in water. It is a native of this country, 
growing in ponds and ditches. 

Horned Pond-weed (Zanmchellia palustns). A floating 
plant somewhat resembling Potamogeton, found in ponds in 
this country. 

Choke Pond-weed (Anaclmris Alsinastrum). A plant 



134 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



with leaves like chickweed, arranged three in a whorl, on 
long, slender, floating stems, which are densely matted 
together. It is a native of N. America, and about 20 years 
ago made its appearance in this country, spreading so rapidly 
that it was feared it would choke up the canals and so pre- 
vent navigation. It, however, forms such dense masses that 
it ultimately becomes exhausted and dies out. 

Grass- wrack {Zostera marina). A plant with long, narrow, 
tape-like leaves, 3 — 4 feet in length. It is a native of this 
country, being generally found in the estuaries of tidal rivers. 
When dried it is used for packing, stuffing beds, cushions, 
&c., and is known by the name of Alva marina. 

The Duck-Weed Family. 

(LEMNACEiE.) 

Small stemless plants, loosely floating on the surface of 
ponds and stagnant pools in this country. They consist of 
simple or lobed leaves, and bear small inconspicuous flowers. 
There are about 20 species, widely distributed in Jamaica and 
other tropical countries. Pistia stratiotes is a singular plant 
with bright green wedge-shaped leaves, growing in a rosulate 
manner. It is said to putrify the water, causing miasma. Its 
curious mode of floating and propagating may be seen in the 
aquariums at Kew. 

THE ARUM, SCEEW PINE, AND PALM ALLIANCES. 
The Arum Family. 

(Aroide^) 

Palmids, phyllacorms, epiphytal ampelids, orrhizocorm 
herbs, gecerally of a soft texture, destitute of pubescence. 
Leaves with sheathing petioles ; entire, digitate, or va- 
riously lobed, either membranous or leathery, and with 
netted veins. Inflorescence enclosed in a spathe, consist- 
ing of a compact fleshy spike (spadix), of small sessile 



THE ARUM FAMILY. 



135 



flowers, either with or without floral envelopes, bisexual 
or unisexual on different parts of the spadix. Fruit a 
succulent berry, distinct or forming a fleshy compound 
fruit. 

About 200 species are known of this family, the her- 
baceous section being natives of the northern hemisphere, 
but the greater number are tropical, with palmid stems 6 to 
12 feet high ; or ampelids 100, or even more feet in length. 
They difi'er from most other endogenous plants, the parts 
of their flowers being arranged in fours, and their leaves 
being net veined, and sometimes perforated with circular 
or oblong holes. They generally possess poisonous pro- 
perties. 

Wake -robin (^Arum maculatum). A well known native 
of this country, growing in the open parts of woods and 
waste places. It is known by the peasantry as "lords and 
ladies" or " cuckoo-pint." Its corm roots are collected in 
the Island of Portland, and made into sago or " salep," its 
poisonous properties becoming dissipated by boiling. 

Taro (^Colocasia esculenta, C. antiqnorum, and C. ma- 
crorliiza). These have large heart-shaped leaves borne on 
long footstalks, which rise from a short, fleshy, farinaceous 
corm. Numerous varieties are cultivated throughout all 
tropical countries. The corms furnish an important article 
of food to the inhabitants of tropical India, the islands of the 
Pacific, and also in the West Indies, where they are called 
" eddoes" and " scratch-coco." Taro is the ge.neral name 
for them elsewhere. 

Indian kale {Caladium sagittifolmm, C. nyinphcefolium, 
and Arum divaricatum). These are in habit similar to the 
preceding, their leaves being used as a vegetable in the Feejee 
and Sandwich Islands. 

Amorphophallus campanulatus. This remarkable plant 
is a native of India and many of the Pacific islands, pro- 
ducing but one large leaf, borne on a long footstalk 5 or 6 



136 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



feet in height, and being divided into spreading segments. 
The flowers are borne near the ground, and are enveloped in 
a dark brown spathe, and have a very offensive odour. This 
and other allied species furnish a considerable quantity of 
nutritious food to the natives in India. 

Godwinia gigas, a native of Nicaragua, has recently 
been introduced to this country. It has a rhizocorm larger 
than a man's head, from which rises a single leaf, which with 
its petiole is 13 feet in height. Its flower stem being 4 feet 
high, bearing a spathe 2 feet in length, of a dark brown 
colour, and very offensive odour. In the latter respect, it 
does not much surpass Arum Dracunculus, or Dracun^ 
cuius vulgar a native of the south of Europe, and common 
in gardens. 

Monstera deliciosa. A native of Mexico, and an epi- 
phytal climber ; its stems are about an inch in diameter, 
extending to a great length, and furnished with large cordate 
lobed leaves perforated with holes. The fruit is about the 
size of a small pineapple, consisting of pulpy fruits of a pink 
colour and most delicious flavour. It grows and fruits freely 
in the hot-houses of this country. 

Dumb-cane (Dieffenhachia seguind). A native of the West 
Indies, having a fleshy cane-like stem 1^ inch in diameter, 
and from 4 — 6 feet high. Its leaves are oblong elliptical. 
It is highly acrid and poisonous. If a portion be chewed in 
the mouth it causes the tongue to swell, and loss of speech 
for some time ; hence the name " Dumb-cane." Alocasia dis- 
tillatoria, a large-leaved species, has the same effect. 

Trumpet Lily or Lily of the Nile {Richardia cethiojnca, 
better known as Calla cethiopica), is a native of eastern 
Africa, and grows in wet places from Egypt to the Cape of 
Good Hope. It is recorded as having been introduced to 
this country 130 years ago. It grows freely in the green- 
house, and its pretty white flowers (spathes) have made 
it a favourite ornamental plant in rooms, &c. 

Within the last few years many species of Alocasia with 
leaves of a metallic lustre, and Caladiums with parti-coloured, 



THE SCREW-PINE FAMILY. 



137 



and even golden-coloured foliage have been introduced, and 
are esteemed favourite hot-house plants. 

The Tacead Family. 

(Taccace^.) 

A small family of plants which somewhat resemble 
Aroids, but technically differ in their flowers and fruit. 
They are generally natives of warm regions. Attaccia 
cristata, a native of India, has fibrous roots, entire leaves, 
and a singular spathaceous inflorescence borne on a 
stem a foot high. Tacca pinnatijida and other allied 
species consist of fleshy rhizocorms from which rise 
large, erect, digitate, or many-parted leaves. They are 
extensively cultivated in the Malayan and Pacific Islands 
for their fleshy corms, which contain a farinaceous 
meal like sago, and forms an important article of food. 
T. pinnatijida is known in the Sandwich Isles by the 
name of " Pi." 

The Screw-pine Family. 

(Pa^^danace^.) 

Palmids, generally with fibrous, stifi'-branched stems, 
and aerial roots ; or phyllacorms, some epiphytal am- 
pelids. Leaves, grass or sword-like, or elliptical, rarely 
palmate, entire or with serrated margins. Flowers 
inconspicuous, monoecious, or dioecious. Ovaries (fruits) 
compactly united in globose, conical, or cylindrical heads. 

A singular family of plants, consisting of about 80 
species, natives of India and the islands of the Indian 
and Pacific Oceans. 

They possess no special properties. 

Screw-pine (Pandanus odoratissimus). This and other 
alhed species generally grow near the sea in the above- 



138 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



mentioned habitats. They abound in the Mauritius, and 
attain the height of 20 — 30 feet, and are known by the name 
*' bacona." Their stout aerial roots give to their palm-like 
stems the appearance of being supported on props, and at a 
distance they look like a candelabrum. This last remark 
applies more particularly to P. candelabrum^ a native of 
west tropical Africa. 

Their leaves are 4 — 6 or more feet in length, and are used 
for making mats, baskets, and the like. 

The thick aerial roots consist of tough, spongy fibre, this 
is beaten out and is used as brushes. , It is also used as a 
substitute for cork. The head of fruit is sometimes as large 
as a man's head, but contains very little pulpy or eatable 
matter. The seeds are embedded in a hard woody substance, 
and are difficult to extract. The screw-pine is common in 
the hot-houses of this country. 

Freycinetia Banksii, a native of New Zealand, is a sarmen- 
tose epiphyte, having stiff, narrow, spiny leaves about 2 feet 
long, produced in fascicles, and presenting the appearance of 
a broad-leaved grass, growing in tufts on trees. 

Cyclanthus funifera is a similar species, native of tropical 
America. The older parts of its stems resemble ropes. 

Carludovica palmata. A native of Panama, Ecuador, 
and other parts of Central America. It is a stemless species, 
with incised, fan-shaped leaves, on petioles or footstalks 
8 — 10 feet long. The celebrated Panama hats and cigar 
cases are made of the leaves, and form a considerable article 
of trade in hot climates. 

The Palm Family. 

(Palmace^.) 

Palmids, or ampelids, with hard stems, the first vary 
from a few to 100 or even more feet in height ; while the 
latter trail or climb to a great height, generally by the 
aid of hooked spines. Leaves simple, in the form of and 
plaited like a fan, or pinnate, rarely simple and plane. 



THE PALM FAMILY. 



139 



Inflorescence, a simple or compound spadix, contained 
in a spathe. Flowers small, hermaphrodite, monoecious 
or dioecious, consisting of 3 sepals and 3 petals. Sta- 
mens 3 to 6, or numerous. Pistil simple, seated on a 
3-celled ovary, generally by abortion 1 -seeded. Fruit a 
hard nut, covered with a fleshy, fibrous, or scaly rind. 

With the exception of grasses, few plants are of more 
importance to man than palms, more especially with re- 
ference to the inhabitants of the torrid zone and conti- 
guous regions, being rarely found beyond 40° N. and 
35° S. lat. About J 000 species are enumerated. They 
abound in tropical America, Africa, India, and other 
countries. Some species are very gregarious. Palms 
have been called the " princes of the vegetable kingdom," 
and although but few were known, and those but imper- 
fectly, in the time of Linnaeus, yet that great naturalist 
fancied that the country of palm trees was the first abode 
of our race, and that man was naturally palmivorous. 
Be this as it may, their economic uses are manifold. 

The aspect of palm trees being very difi'erent from the 
trees of Europe led to their being early sought after as 
objects of curiosity, and in 1768 five species are recorded 
as growing at Kew. Fifty years later, their number had 
increased to twenty-two, and although not growing under 
very favourable circumstances, several had attained a 
size to merit their being spoken of as the " Great Palms 
of Kew." Thirty years later, they had the chance of be- 
coming really great, for in 1 848 they were placed in the 
noble " Palm-house" specially erected for their recep- 
tion. Lofty and spacious palm-houses have also been 
erected in the Edinburgh and Dublin botanic gardens, 
thus showing that palms are much admired in this 
country. 



140 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Although such is the case, they are nevertheless, with 
the exception of the climbing species, of slow growth. 
For many years they are stemless, their leaves being suc- 
cessively developed from a surface or underground en- 
larging axis, which in some species progresses like a 
rhizome to a foot or more in length. It continues to 
increase in size till it attains the normal diameter of the 
forthcoming stem. While this is being accomplished 
the leaves acquire a succulent development, ultimately 
becoming spirally ascending. The axis then progresses 
upwards, and in time becomes a palm tree stem, differing 
in girth and rate of growth according to kind. 

From more than forty years' observation and other 
data, I feel warranted in saying that a period of from 
thirty to fifty years or more elapses before the stems of 
many palms commence their upward growth, this period 
having been passed in what may be called their infancy, 
or age of preparation. 

*Fan-leaved Palms. 

Palmyra Palm (^Borassus Jlahelliformis). A native of 
Ceylon, India, and generally throughout Central Africa. It 
has large fan-shaped leaves, and a cylindrical stem rising to 
the height of 50 to 100 feet. Nearly 10,000 different uses 
are ascribed to it by the natives. It is one of the wine or 
*' toddy" yielding palms of India, and jaggary sugar is 
obtained from it in large quantities. The fruit is in bunches, 
each fruit being about 3 inches in diameter, and its pulpy 
covering is made into a kind of jelly. The young sprouts 
of the nuts are brought to the markets, and used in the same 
manner as asparagus. 

Tl3i\v^ot V2Llm(^Cory pha umhraculif era). This noble palm is 
a native of Ceylon, and attains a height equal to the last. Its 
large fan-shaped leaves are borne on prickly footstalks, and 
like those of the " Palmyra Palm," are carried over people 



Pi. e. 




b a r 



THE PALM FAMILY. 



141 



of rank. They are also made into fans, Hindoo books, and 
other useful articles. 

Corypha Taliera is similar to the last, and is used for the 
same purposes, but it does not grow so tall. It is common 
throughout India. 

Licuala acutifida^ and L. peltata. Small fan palms not 
exceeding 6 — 8 feet in height. They are natives of Pulo- 
Penang. Their stems are imported to this country in a 
rough state under the name of " Penang Lawyers," and after 
they are made smooth and polished, are used for walking- 
sticks. 

Double Cocoa-nut {Jjodoicea sechellarura). This may bo 
considered the largest and most remarkable of palms. It is 
a native of a small group of islands in the Indian Ocean called 
the Seychelles. It is said to attain the height of 100 feet, its 
stem being 1^ to 2 feet in diameter, bearing at its summit a 
crown of lan-shaped leaves. It is remarkable for growing in 
a socket of a hard, woody texture, perforated with holes made 
by the roots. This curious appendage derives its origin from 
the cotyledon, which in this palm attains the extraordinary 
length of 2 feet, growing downwards like a root, having the 
germ (plumule) seated in its thickened end. When perfect 
the thick end opens on one side like a sheath, out of which 
rise the first and succeeding leaves of the plant, roots also 
being produced, which make their exit by piercing the end 
of the sheath. In time the nutriment of the nut becomes 
exhausted ; and the part of the cotyledon between it and the 
young plant withers. The latter, however, retains its placen- 
tide vital connexion with the sheath end of the cotyledon, 
which is henceforth nourished by the plant, and increasing 
in size with the growth of the plant, which thus continues 
seated in the cradle of its birth through life. 

The fruit is a large, oblong nut covered with a thin rind. 
After the removal of the outer envelope, or rind, the fruit 
has the appearance of two oblong nuts, firmly united together, 
and often weighs 30 to 40 lbs. They are borne in bunches 
9 or 10 in number, so that a whole bunch will often weigh 



142 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



400 lbs. It takes ten years to ripen its fruit, the albumen 
of which is similar to that of the common cocoa-nut {Cocos 
nucifera)^ but is too hard and horny to serve as food. The 
shell is converted into many useful articles by the natives, 
but the most important part is the leaves, which are made 
into hats, baskets, and the like. The demand has of late 
years become so great that in order to obtain the leaves the 
trees are cut down, and as no care is taken to form new 
plantations, it is feared this palm will eventually become 
extinct. In 1864 the leading botanists in this country 
petitioned the Government for its protection. By more 
recent information, however, it appears that on one island 
alone there are many thousands of trees. 

Before its habitat Avas discovered the nuts were found 
floating on the sea near the coast of the Maldive Islands, 
which led to the supposition that they grew in the sea, and 
they were called " Coco de Mer" or " Sea Cocoa-Nut," 
and were considered very valuable as presents, even to 
kings. 

Gingerbread, or Doum Palm {Hyphcene thehaica). A 
native of Upper Egjrpt, Nubia, Abyssinia, and adjacent 
countries. Its stem is a foot or more in diameter, and of 
very slow growth. It continues simple for a number of 
years but eventually divides into branches, and attains the 
height of 20 feet, each branch bearing a crown of fan-shaped 
leaves. The fruit is borne in a large pendulous bunch, 
1 — 200 together, each fruit being about the size of an 
apple, having the flavour of gingerbread. The fibrous 
pulp forms part of the food of the poorer classes in Upper 
Egypt. This species, or one very closely allied, has been 
found in South Africa. The stems are not always branched, 
but often remain undivided and cylindrical, or spindle- 
shaped. 

Common Fan Vslm. {Chamarops humilis). This is found 
in Southern Europe and N. Africa, where it occupies extensive 
sandy plains and rocky places. When old it is sometimes 
20 — 30 feet high, but it generally grows in a cespitose 



THE PALM FAMILY. 



143 



manner, having niimeroiis suckers, and then seldom exceeds 
3 — 4 feet in height. The leaves are used for many pur- 
poses, and yield a tough fibre resembling horse-hair, and for 
•which it is sometimes substituted. 

Palmata Palm (^Chamcerops palmatd). This is a small 
stemmed palm, 10 or more feet high, occupying large tracts 
on the eastern coasts of the Southern United States. It was 
used as an emblem in the late American war on the banners 
of the Confederate States. 

Mauritia Palm {Mauritia flexuosa). Found near the Rivers 
Amazon and Orinoco. Its stems are about 2 feet in diameter, 
surmounted by a tuft of fan-shaped leaves, and sometimes 
rising to 100 feet in height. It affords many articles of 
domestic use to a tribe of Indians, who during the periodical 
inundations of the rivers, suspend their dwellings from the 
trees. These dwellings consist simply of a floor of mats made 
from its leaves, on which they place earth and make their 
fires, " which," as Humboldt says, " present a singular ap- 
pearance at night." 

" Wide o'er his Isles, the branching Oronoque 
Eolls a brown dehige ; and the native drives 
To dwell aloft on lite-sufficing trees ; 
At once his dome, his robe, his food, and arms." 

TJiomson. 

"VTax Palm (C'(9per?2^cm ceriferci). A native of Brazil ; its 
cylindrical stem rising to the height of about 40 feet, and 
measuring about a foot in diameter, and studded its entire 
length with hard, projecting knobs, an inch in length, being 
the base of the fallen leaf-stalk. The wood is very hard, takes 
a fine polish, and is used for veneering. The young leaves 
are coated with a waxy secretion, Avhich is obtained by 
shaking the leaves. It is imported to this country and used 
for making candles. 

**WlNG-LEAVED PaLMS. 

Cocoa-nut ( Cocos nucifera), A native of the coasts of 
tropical Africa, India, Malay, and islands of the Indian and 



144 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Pacific Oceans. It is generally cultivated tlirougliout all 
tropical countries, and requires no special care. 

The tree varies in height from 50—100 feet, and has long 
winged leaves, the so called "nuts" being produced in 
bunches of 10 — 20 or more together. They are of a tri- 
angular form, about a foot long, consisting of a thick coat of 
fibre, enclosing a hard shell, which with its contents is 
known as the " cocoa-nut." 

It is commonly said that the uses of the cocoa-nut are 
as numerous as the days in a year, affording food, drink, 
domestic utensils, and materials for building and thatching. 
In some parts of India and other countries, the white albu- 
men of the "nut" forms nearly the entire food of the natives, 
and the white fluid or " milk," serves them for drink. It also 
yields wine and sugar. Cocoa nut oil is obtained by pressing 
the albumen. When fresh it is transparent, and is then 
used in cookery. Large quantities of it are imported to this 
country. The thicker portion, called " stearine," being 
used for making candles, while the clear oil is used for 
burning in lamps, &c. 

Formerly the fibre was used for making " coir" ropes only, 
but within the last 30 years it has been manufactured into 
floor matting, brushes, brooms, and is used for stuffing 
cushions as well as many other purposes. The hard shell is 
made into cups, and other domestic utensils. The wood is 
known as " Porcupine wood." 

Date Palm {Phcenix dactylifera). A native of North 
Africa and Western Asia, including Syria, and has become 
naturalized in the south of Europe. It is a palm of the 
desert, and is first mentioned in Exodus;* when the children 
of Israel came to Elim and encamped, " there were three 
score and ten palm trees." Palestine, in the vicinity of 
Jericho, was also famed for its palm trees, as also the 
valley of the Dead Sea, and although once abundant in both 
localities they are now extinct. The date grows to the height 



* Chap. XV. ver. 27. 



THE PALM FAMILY. 



145 



of 40 — 50 feet, bearing a crown of leaves, each leaf being 
15 — 20 feet long, with a strong footstalk set with stiff spines. 
The fruit is produced in large bunches containing from 20 
to 30 dates. In Northern Africa dates form a large portion 
of the food of the Arabs and other tribes, as well as the 
Bedouin Arabs of the wilderness of Sinai, where the trees 
grow in entangled thickets. They also serve as food for 
their domestic animals, and are used for many other pur- 
poses. This is supposed to be the palm spoken of in St. John's 
Gospel, " Took branches of palm trees, and went forth to 
meet him,"* from which it may be inferred that they were 
carried as emblems of dignity, and certainly nothing could 
have a more imposing effect than a number of unexpanded 
date leaves with their curved apices borne in this manner. 
In this country date leaves are used as emblems of respect to 
the memory of great men. 

Phoenix sylvestris. A common palm throughout India, 
attaining a considerable height, and has leaves like the last. 
It is one of the wine or toddy palms. In Old Calabar and 
other parts of West Africa toddy is procured from Baphia 
vinifera and several other palms not at present well known to 
botanists. 

When fresh, " toddy " is pleasant, but it speedily fer- 
ments and becomes intoxicating ; when distilled it is called 
" arrack," which, like other intoxicating beverages, is per- 
nicious and demoralizing when taken in excess. By boiling, 
a sugar is obtained called "jaggary." There are several 
methods of obtaining toddy, but chiefly by cutting off the 
end of the young flower spike (spadix) before it opens, and 
fastening a vessel to the end into which the sap flows. A 
model illustrating the mode of climbing the trees, together 
with implements for collecting the "toddy," are to be seen in 
the Museum at Kew. 

Caryota urens is another wine palm abundant throughout 
India, growing to the height of 50 or 60 feet, and having a 



* Chap. xii. ver. 13. 
L 



146 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



large head of compound winged leaves. The leaflets are 
wedge-shaped, with curious torn edges. This plant also yields 
a kind of sago. Its fruit is about the size of a small plum, 
having a red rind which is acrid and burning, hence its specific 
name. A woolly pubescence is produced on the stem, called 
Amadou^ which was formerly used as tinder. 

Sago {Sagus Icevis and S. Rumphii^ by some botanists 
called Metroxylon Icevis and M. Eumphii), natives of Siam, 
the Indian Archipelago, and other islands in the Eastern 
Ocean. They grow in clumps, or are gregarious, generally 
in wet places, attaining the height of from 30 to 50 feet ; the 
trunk varies from 6 inches to 1 foot in diameter, surmounted 
by a plumose crown of winged leaves. The sago is obtained 
by cutting down the tree and then splitting the trunk. The 
soft white centre or pith is loosened from the hard wood, 
and thrown into tanks of water, in which it is repeatedly 
washed and strained until a pure, pulpy paste is obtained. 
In this state, in order to preserve it, the natives keep it 
under water, and it forms a large proportion of their food. 
For exportation it is dried, and granulated through sieves. 
Sago is also procured from other palms, natives of the Indian 
and Malayan Archipelago, especially from Saguerus saccha- 
rifer, which has a stout trunk attaining a height of 40 to 
50 feet, bearing large winged leaves. This palm j)robably 
produces the largest leaves of any plant, a specimen at Kew 
having leaves which, together with their sheathing base, 
measure 40 feet in length. 

Betel Nut {Areca Catechu). A native of Cochin China, 
the Malayan peninsula, and islands. It is a slender stemmed, 
lofty palm, with regular pinnate leaves and long linear 
leaflets. The fruit is borne on an erect spadix, and is about 
the size of a hen's egg, covered with a thick fibrous red rind, 
which envelopes a hard nut. The nut is cut into pieces 
and rolled up in a leaf of the Betel pepper, and chewed as 
tobacco is in this country. This is practised by the whole of 
the Indian and Malayan races ; indeed, it is said that many 
would rather forego their food than the use of the Betel Nut. 



THE PALM FAMILY. 



147 



Shiploads of nuts are anmially conveyed to countries where 
it is not cultivated. 

Cabbage Palm (Areca oleraced). A common palm of the 
West Indies. It has a slender stem, and grows to a great 
height. This and others of the same nature are called 
Cabbage Palms, on account of their young unexpanded 
leaves being used as a vegetable. Seaforthia elegans is the 
Cabbage Palm of New South Wales ; it, with the elegant Fan 
Palm {Corypha Australis), Tree Ferns, Cedar [Cedrela), 
Gigantic Nettle, and other remarkable trees of tropical aspect, 
formed the primeval natural forests of the Illawarra district 
of New South Wales, and although one hundred years have 
not passed since first seen by civilized man, they are now fast 
disappearing ; remnants only remaining in places where the 
plough has not reached. 

Peach Palm {Guilielma speciosa). A native of Venezuela, 
where it is called Perigao. It is also found near the Orinoco, 
and grows to the height of 50 to 60 feet, the stem being co- 
vered with long sharp spines. It is largely cultivated for its 
fruit, which constitutes a great part of the food of the natives. 

Coquito Nut {Juhcea spectahilis). A native of Chili, and 
is the most southern of American Palms. In habit it is 
similar to the Date Palm. The fruit is about the size of a hen's 
egg, consisting of a husk enclosing a nut about as large as a 
marble. If the leaves are cut, a large quantity of sap of the 
consistency of treacle flows out, from which sugar is manu- 
factured, forming an article of Chilian trade. The nuts 
are eaten, and are sometimes imported to this country. 

Assai Palm {Euterpe edulis). A Brazilian palm found on 
low grounds, and at the mouths of rivers near the sea, as at 
Para, where it grows in great abundance. It has a slender 
stem, about 30 feet high, bearing its fruit in bunches. The 
fruits are of a bluish colour, about the size of sloes, and have 
a small amount of pulpy matter between the skin and the 
nut. They are thrown into water and bruised until the pulp 
is mixed with the water, which is then strained off. A 
mixture of sugar and Cassava flour is added to the liquor, 

l2 



148 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



which then forms the food of a large number of the people 
of Para. 

Piassaba (^Attalea funifera and Leopoldina piassaha). 
Stout growing Brazihan palms, which have a very unsightly 
appearance on account of their old leaves hanging down, and 
their stems being covered with loose, shaggy fibre, which is 
used for making ropes and mats. Shiploads are imported 
to this country, chiefly for making street and other brooms. 
The nuts of A. funifera (Coquilla nuts) are about 3 inches 
long, very hard, and are used for making door handles, beh- 
pulls, &c. In some parts of Central America the stems of 
the Attaleas are converted into natural drinking fountains, 
and when wanted for that purpose a tree is cut down, and a 
deep cavity scooped out on the side of the stem near the top. 
The base being slightly raised causes the sap to flow towards 
and collect in the cavity, from which it can easily be obtained 
by the passers by. 

Maximiliana regia. A noble palm of the Amazon, 
rising to the height of 100 feet, and crowned with winged 
leaves 30 feet long. The spathe containing the fruit is of a 
hard, woody texture, 5 or more feet in length, and when 
open 2 feet wide, much resembling a boat, with a long peak 
like a bowsprit. These spathes are used for a variety of 
purposes by the Indians, such as nursing cradles, baskets, 
and even for water vessels. 

Raphia Ruffia. A native of the Mauritius and Madagascar, 
and is remarkable for its large, pendulous bunches of fruit, 
which are 12 to 15 feet long, each fruit being about the size 
of a hen's egg, the shell consisting of closely imbricating 
scales, the whole bunch weighing from 200 to 300 lbs. This 
palm is also remarkable for growing in a socket like the 
" double cocoa-nut." 

Palm Oil {Elceis guineensis). This palm occupies vast 
territories in tropical West Africa. It is a low-growing 
species seldom exceeding 20 feet in height, having a fine 
plumose crown of pinnate leaves, similar to that of the 
Date Palm {Phoenix dactylifera). It is of great longevity, 



THE PALM FAMILY. 



149 



and yearly produces bunches of fruit 2 or 3 feet long, and 
as mucli in circumference. The fruits are about the size of 
walnuts, having a red rind, which envelopes a pulpy matter 
and a hard nut. The fleshy part is separated, and after 
boiling and skimming, the "palm oil" of commerce is ob- 
tained, shiploads of it being imported to this country for 
the purpose of candle-making; it is also used in the manu- 
facture of soap. The yellow grease used for the carriage 
wheels on railways is this substance. The nut is also crushed, 
and yields oil, the refuse being made into " oil-cake" for 
cattle feeding ; in its fresh state it is used by the natives for 
butter. It is believed that this palm will ultimately prove a 
powerful agent in changing the political and social condi- 
tion of the negro race, the kings and chiefs finding it more 
advantageous to employ their subjects in collecting and 
preparing the oil, than in selling them as slaves. Several 
other palms jield oil, as Attalea Cohune^ a native of Central 
America. 

Most oils contain a principle called the " sweet of oil," 
which when chemically separated forms the transparent oily 
substance glycerine. In this country it is chiefly obtainedj 
from palm oils and Japanese wax; its antiseptic and preH 
servative powers have brought it into use for preserving soft 
animal and vegetable substances for culinary and many other 
purposes. It is also used medicinally, and its emollient and 
slow evaporating nature renders it useful in skin diseases, 
and also in the preparation of cosmetic perfumes. 

W?i'K.Va}m. (^Ceroxylon andicold). A native ofthemoun 
tainous regions of New Granada, where it ascends nearly to 
the snow line, forming forests which may be compared to the 
fir forests of more northern latitudes. It is a tall growing 
palm, bearing a crown of winged leaves 15 or 20 feet long. 
The whole plant is of a grey colour, its trunk being coated 
with a resinous wax, which is collected by scraping, and forms 
an article of commerce amongst the natives. The wax is made 
into candles, which are presented as offerings to their saints 
and the Vii'gin. It is but little known in this country. 



150 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Ivory Nut {Phytelephas macrocarpa). A native of New 
Granada, Darien, and other parts of Central America. The 
stem is generally 6 to 8 inches in diameter, suberect, decum- 
bent, or even creeping on the ground. The leaves are pin- 
nate, 18 — 20 feet long, having narrow segments like the 
date palm. The flowers are dioecious, and are enclosed in a 
spathe — the head of fruit when perfect being globular, about 
the size of a man's head, and containing on an average about 
40 nuts ; the whole head weighing upwards of 30 lbs. Each 
nut is about the size of a green walnut, but not quite 
round; when young they are coated with a thin pulpy 
covering, of which a favourite beverage is made ; it is, how- 
ever, their hardness and white colour which give them a 
commercial value ; they are largely imported, and are being 
made into buttons, umbrella handles, knobs for doors, work- 
\ boxes, and toys. Seeds of this plant were received at Kew 
j in 1845, and in 1864, a plant in the Palm House had leaves 
16 feet in length. 

Macaw tree or Gru-gru (Acrocomia sclerocarpa). A 
wing-leaved palm, having a trunk 30 feet high covered with 
strong spines. It is a native of Jamaica, Brazil, and other 
parts of tropical America. The nuts are globose, about the 
same size as those of the " Ivory nut," and being very hard 
take a fine polish. They also yield a fine scented oil used 
in the manufacture of toilet soap. 

Rasp Palm {Iriartea exorrhiza). A native of Brazil and 
Central America. Its growth is remarkable, the trunk being 
elevated on stout aerial roots, which diverge from its base 
in a slanting direction, giving to the tree the appearance of 
being supported on props in such a manner and height that a 
man can walk beneath them. These supporting roots are 
hard and straight, 6 — 8 inches in circumference, and being 
covered with rough tubercles are cut into convenient lengths 
and used by the natives for grating *' cocoa nuts" and for 
other purposes. 

Chair Cane {Calamus Rotang, C. rudentum, C. verus^ and 
C. viminalis). These species are natives of India and the 



THE SPIDER-WORT FAMILY. 



151 



Malayan Islands, having slender reed-like stems, which grow 
to a great length, often from 150 to 200 feet, spreading over 
trees and rambling in every direction. The stems and foot- 
stalks of the leaves are generally furnished with stifE hooked 
prickles. They are known by the name of rattans, and are 
largely imported to this country for making chair-bottoms, 
umbrella-ribs, and for other purposes, being used as a sub- 
stitute for whalebone. 

Dragon's Blood {Calamus Draco). A native of the same 
countries, and similar in habit to the preceding species. Its 
fruit grows in bunches and are about the size of cherries, 
consisting of imbricated scales of a rich shining red colour, 
caused by a coating of wax which is collected by shaking 
them in bags. After being run together into sticks or cakes, 
it is imported and used in staining wood, for varnishes, &c. 

Malacca Cane {Calamus Sctpionum). An erect, slender- 
stemmed palm, having distant joints. When cut and dried 
they are of a beautiful chestnut-brown colour, and are made 
into the much admired Malacca canes, which were once 
carried by livery servants behind carriages. 

Several species of Calamus are natives of Sikkim, one of the 
most important being C. montanus, of which suspension 
bridges are made in India. It is also twisted into ropes, and 
used for other purposes where great strength is required. 

In tropical America, climbing palms are represented by 
Desmoncus and several species of Chamcedorea, which in New 
Granada are twisted together and used in forming suspension 
bridges. 

THE LILY AND HELLEBOEE ALLIANCE. 
The Spider-wort Family. 

(COMMELYNACEJE.) 

Perennial, or annual herbs ; or soft, j ointed, erect, or trail- 
ing-stemmed fruticuls ; either rooting on the ground or 
epiphytal. Leaves simple, sheathing at their base. Flowers 
naked, or many together in a bivalved involucre. Sepals 



152 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



and petals 3 each. Stamens 6 — 9 part abortive, some having 
fringed filaments. Fruit a 2 — 3-celled capsule. 

About 250 or more species constitute this family. They 
are found chiefly within the tropics, and in New Holland, a 
few in N. America, but none in Europe or Northern Asia. 
The tuberous rooted species contain starch, but are not 
of any economic importance. They are pretty, orna- 
mental garden plants, some being extremely interesting, such 
as — Tradescantia virginica, an old garden perennial with 
white, pink, and blue flowers, the filaments of which are fur- 
nished with a fringe of jointed hairs. The jointed appearance 
is due to the hairs being composed of cells placed end to end, 
and when viewed under the microscope each cell is seen to 
have an independent circulation of sap. T. discolor^ T. rufa, 
and T. zehrina (a pretty variegated species), I)ichorisandra 
thyrsiflora^ Spironema fragrans, and Aneilema crispata are 
pretty flowering hot-house plants. The most remarkable 
plant of the family is Cochliostema Jacobianum, a native of 
Ecuador, and which has been introduced within the last few 
years to the gardens of Europe. It is a stemless epiphyte, 
having numerous spreading leaves 3 — 4 feet long, and 1-i 
inches in breadth, of an oblong -lanceolate form, and having 
the appearance of a large-leaved Anthurium. The peduncle 
is more than a foot high, bearing a panicle of blue flowers, 
each flower being more than 2 inches in diameter. Much of 
the pecuKarity of the plant rests in the character of its 
stamens, which are enclosed in a kind of hood. 

The Hellebore Family. 

(MELANTHACEiE. ) 

Bulbo, rhizo, or phyllocorms. Leaves grass-like, or 
broad, in tufts. Flowers in spikes or racemes, or soHtary. 
Sepals and petals 6, uniform, free, or united at the base. 
Nearly 150 species are enumerated as belonging to this 
family, the greater number being natives of temperate coun- 
tries in both hemispheres. They are widely distributed, 



THE HELLEBORE FAMILY. 



153 



and the greater number are poisonous, some being of a very 
virulent nature. The only native representatives are Colchi- 
cum autumnale and Tofieldia palustris, the latter a grassy- 
leaved plant growing in waste places in the north of England 
and Scotland. 

Colchicum (Colchicum autumnale). This is rarely found 
wild, although it is common in gardens. It is known as 
" Meadow Saffron," and "Autumn Crocus." It has a solid, 
bulbous root (corm), from which crocus-like flowers are pro- 
duced in the autumn, succeeded by grass-like leaves. It is 
found throughout the warm parts of Europe, and is highly 
poisonous, but it is of importance in medicine, more espe- 
cially for gouty affections. 

White Hellebore (Veratrum album). A perennial plant, 
native of some parts of Europe, especially Alpine regions. 
It has broad, elliptical, pointed leaves, with prominent longi- 
tudinal veins, and a flower-stem rising to the height of 3 — 4 
feet bearing panicles of greenish-white flowers. The roots are 
thick and fleshy, of a poisonous nature, and though sometimes 
used medicinally, are not of much repute in this country. 

Sabadilla (Asagrcea officinalis). A native of Mexico. The 
poisonous principle veratrine is obtained from it, being used 
in medicine, and for destroying vermin. 

Fly poison (Amianthium musccetoxicum) . This is a native 
of N. America. It is injurious to cattle, and is used as a fly 
poison. 

The genera Methonica or Gloriosa, Littonia, and Sander- 
sonia, are represented by 6 or more species, natives of west 
tropical Africa, Natal, and India. They are herbs with 
slender, flexuose, leafy flower-stems, which rise from round, 
oblong, or lobed bulbo-corms. With the exception of Sander- 
sonia the leaves terminate in a tendril by which the stem 
climbs. The species of Methonica attains the height of 6 or 
more feet, and produce large showy flowers on axillary 
peduncles. The perianth lobes are reflexed, and the long 
style is bent horizontally at a point a little above the ovary. 

Botanists are not agreed as to the relative position of this 



154 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



small group, some placing them with lilies, others referring 
them to the present family, and their solid corms seem to 
indicate this as their proper place. 

The Lily Family. 

(LlLIACE^.) 

Plants varying in habit, the extremes of which are repre- 
sented by Dragon-trees, Lilies, Butcher's-broom, and its 
climbing associates. Leaves always simple, glabrous, rarely 
villous, grass or sword-like, or elliptical. Flowers produced 
in various ways. Sepals and petals 6, generally uniform in 
size and colour, free or united at the base, forming a pe- 
rianth. Stamens 6. Pistil simple, or 3-lobed. Fruit a 
many-seeded, 3-celled capsule, or a fleshy berry. 

About 1200 species are enumerated as belonging to this 
interesting family ; they present such diverse variation in 
habit and technical character, as to have been classed by 
some botanists under different families, and it will best suit 
this work if we artificially arrange them according to their 
mode of growth as regards roots and stems. They are 
widely distributed, being chiefly natives of temperate coun- 
tries both in the North and South hemispheres. In Europe 
they are represented by Allium, and Ornithogalum ; in 
America and Japan, by Lilies ; in Mexico, by Yuccas ; in 
Africa, by Aloes, Draccenas, and various bulbs; and in 
Australia, by Grass-trees (Xanthorrhoea) . 

They are of considerable importance, both for food and 
also for economic and domestic uses. Many have a 
medical reputation, irritant, and, of a drastic, purgative 
nature, some even being poisonous. 

I. Lily Group. 

Herbs with compact (bulb-like) phyllocorms growing on 
or under the surface, with annual, sofl;, flaccid leaves. Scape 
simple, or compound, bearing from one to many flowers, 



THE LILY FAMILY. 



155 



arranged in heads, umbels, spikes, racemes, panicles, &c. 
Flowers generally large and showy. Fruit a capsule. 

Onion {Allium cepa). Leek (A. Porrum), Garlic {A. sati- 
vum). It is scarcely necessary to describe these useful and 
well-known esculents. They are extremely ancient, for we 
read* that leeks, onions, and garlic were cultivated in Egypt 
in the time of Moses, and in course of time found their way 
to western nations, although it is not improbable they were 
originally natives of Southern Europe. The leek is said to 
be wild in Switzerland. 

Eocambole {A Ilium scorodoprasum), Shallot [A . ascalonicum). 
These have bulbs similar to garlic, but are much milder. 
They are more extensively used on the continent than in 
this country. The last named species is a native of Palestine, 
and derives its specific name from Ascalon, where it grows in 
great abundance. It has been cultivated from time imme- 
morial by all the civilized nations of the East, entering 
largely into their daily food. It appears to have been used 
in England about the middle of the 16th century ; the onion 
probably at a much earlier date. 

Chives (Allium Schcenoprasum). A native of the North of 
Europe. It has hollow grass-like leaves, and is commonly 
cultivated in kitchen gardens. 

Star of Bethlehem [Ornithogalum umbellatum). This is 
found in different parts of Europe and Western Asia, and is 
also a native of this country. Its flowers are of a milky 
white, borne in umbels, and it is probably on this account 
that it has received the name " Ornithogalum," which 
literally means "bird's milk." Some suppose that the bul- 
bous roots of this plant were the "dove's dung" spoken 
of in KingSjj" but there is not sufficient proof for this sup- 
position. 

Ornithogalum pyrenaicum is also a native of this country, 
abounding in some parts of the southern counties, especially 



* Numbers, chap. xi. ver. 5. 
t Book II. chap. vi. ver. 25. 



156 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



about Bath, where the young flower-stalks are collected, and 
eaten like asparagus. 

Quamash (Camassia esculenta). A bulbous-rooted plant 
with blue or white flowers. It is a native of North America, 
where it grows very abundantly, and its roots form a large 
proportion of the vegetable food of the Indians. 

Squill [S cilia maritimd). A large bulbous-rooted plant 
found on the coasts of the Mediterranean, and also abundant 
at Malta, from whence it is imported. It is used in medicine, 
being a powerful irritant, and is prescribed in dropsical 
and other complaints. 

Tulip {Tulipa Gesnei^iand). The tulip is said to be a 
native of the Levant, the specific name being given in honour 
of a botanist named Gesner, who was the first to describe 
and figure it in 1559. It appears to have been cultivated 
in this country about 1577. The original or wild plants 
have yellow flowers, but cultivation has produced hundreds 
of beautiful varieties, varying greatly both in colour and size. 
Formerly some of these varieties were so famous that high 
prices were paid foy the bulbs, which in Holland became a 
speculative mania, bulbs representing scrip to a large amount, 
and even scrip circulated on ideal bulbs. For many years 
they have been favourite objects of cultivation and competi- 
tion amongst florists in this country. 

Crown Imperial (^Fritillaria imperialis). A native of the 
South of Europe and Western Asia. It was introduced to 
this country about the end of the sixteenth century. Besides 
the brown flowered varieties there is one with pure yellow 
flowers. Their bulbs contain starch equal in quantity to the 
potato. F. meleagris is a rare British plant, being found 
only in one or two localities, one of which is the meadows 
between Kew and Mortlake. It has solitary nodding flowers 
beautifully chequered with reddish-brown. 

Lilies. Many species of these beautiful plants are cultivated 
in gardens, of which the following are the most admired. 
Common White Lily {Lilium candidum)^ Orange Lily {L. hul- 
hiferum)^ Martagon Lily (X. martagon), Chalcedonian Lily 



THE LILY FAMILY. 



157 



{L. chalcedonicum), Tiger Lily (L. tigrinum)^ Lance-leaved 
Lily {L. lancifolium), Golden-striped Lily (L. auratum), and 
the pretty slender- leaved Lily (L. tenuifolium). — In addition 
to those already named others are sometimes, though more 
rarely, found in gardens. They are natives of Greece, 
Eastern Europe, Levant, China, and Japan. The Golden- 
rayed Lily of Japan (L. auratum) was introduced in 1863, 
producing under good cultivation flower-stems 5 — 6 feet 
high, bearing very large sub-erect white flowers, richly spotted 
with purple and banded with gold ; the flower is sometimes 
a foot in diameter. L. giganteum, a native of Nepal, is a 
magnificent species, with large elliptical leaves, and erect 
flower stems 6 — 8 feet high, bearing large pendulous white 
flowers. In this country it requires the protection of the 
greenhouse. 

Much diflerence of opinion exists as to the plant spoken of 
in the Scriptures as "Lily of the Valley,"* some referring 
it to L. candidum, others to L. chalcedonicum^ both of which 
are abundant in some parts of Palestine. With regard to 
the " Lilies of the field"'f spoken of in St. Matthew's Gospel, 
it seems to signify all pretty wild flowers. 

Tuberose {Polianthes tuberosus). This is said to be a 
native of the East Indies, but has been long introduced to 
the South of Europe, and is at present extensively cultivated 
in Italy, from whence its bulbs are largely imported to this 
country. It derives its generic name from polis^ a city, and 
anthos, a flower, literally " flower of the city." It must not 
be confounded with the generic name " Polyanthus" of the 
Primrose Family. 

Soap Bulb (^Chlorogalum pomeridianum). A native of 
California, and has the remarkable property of " lathering" 
in water like soap, this effect being produced by the muci- 
lage, it containing neither oil nor alkali. 

Hyacinth {Hyacinthus orientalis). A native of Syria and 



* Song of Solomon, chap. ii. ver. 1. 
t Chap. vi. ver. 28. 



158 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



other parts of Western Asia. It was introduced to this 
country before the end of the 16th century, and is a favourite 
spring flowering bulb, there being many single and double 
varieties of various colours. It is extensively cultivated at 
Haarlem, in Holland, where there are large farms devoted 
entirely to the growth of this and other bulbous plants, 
for the supply of this country and other parts of Europe 
and America. 

II. Asphodel Group. 

Plants growing in tufta, without evident stems (phyllo- 
corm) having long, linear, or strap-shaped leaves, often 
channelled, and sometimes sword-shaped. Roots fascicled 
or cord-like. 

Silver Rod, King's Spear (AspJwdelus ramosus). Found in 
great abundance in the vicinity of Palmyra in Syria, where 
its roots are extensively collected, and form an article of 
trade to Damascus and other places in Palestine. They are 
ground into meal, and made into paste used in bookbinding, 
shoemaking, and such like. Golden Rod {A. luteus). Day 
JA\j (Hemerocallis Jlava and H.fulva), are well known showy 
garden plants. 

Tritoma uvaria. A native of the Cape of Good Hope, 
is cultivated as a border plant. It has long, narrow, chan- 
nelled leaves, and bears spikes of vermiUon-coloured flowers 
2 — 3 feet high, and when seen at a distance is not unlike 
a red-hot poker in appearance, whence it is commonly known 
in this country as the " Red-hot Poker plant." 

Love Flower {Agapanthus umhellatus). Introduced from 
the Cape of Good Hope to this country about the end of the 
seventeenth century. It has long strap-shaped leaves, and 
bears large umbels of pale blue flowers on scapes 2 — 4 feet 
high. It is a beautiful plant cultivated in greenhouses. 

HI. Aloe Groxjp. 

Simple, or branched Palmids, or free, above-ground, pe- 
rennial phyllocorms. Leaves grass, or sword-like, in Aloes 



THE LILY FAMILY. 



159 



thick and fleshy, and then often short and obtuse. Fruit 
a capsule. 

Aloes. This genus consists of about 150 species, which vary- 
extremely in size and general appearance. They are chiefly 
natives of South Africa and the African islands. Many 
species have been long cultivated in the gardens of Europe. 

Partridge-breasted Aloe (Aloe variegata). This is fre- 
quently seen in cultivation as a window plant, and is a type 
of the " stemless group," while A. africana and A. ferox 
have cylindrical stems 8 — 10 feet high. The juice exuding 
from the succulent leaves of these, and also from A . plica- 
tilis and A, purpurascens yield the purgative bitter aloes, a 
large quantity of which is imported from the Cape of Good 
Hope. This is, however, of inferior quality ; the best is that 
obtained from A. socotrina, a species which grows abun- 
dantly and gives a special character to the hot, dry island of 
Socotra, in the mouth of the Red Sea. This is generally 
sent from Socotra to Bombay, and is imported to this country 
under the name of Bombay Aloes. 

A species called Barbadoes Aloe (A. vulgaris) is generally 
admitted to be a native of the Island of Barbadoes, but was 
most probably introduced from the coast of Africa by the 
slaves during the early settlement in that island. The drug 
" aloes" forms an important ingredient in patent purgative 
medicines. It must be distinctly understood that the plants 
of this family are not the " aloes" of Scripture. 

Yucca. The species of this genus are natives of Mexico 
and other parts of tropical America. Some species are 
stemless, while Adam's Needle ( T. gloriosa) has palmid stems 
which, under favourable conditions in this country attain 
the height of 4 — 6 feet, and 6 or more inches in diameter. 
They are often branched, each branch being terminated by a 
tuft of lanceolate or sword-shaped leaves, from which rise a 
panicle 2 — 3 feet high, bearing large pendulous white 
flowers. All the species contain a large quantity of fibre in 
their leaves, which is extensively used in the countries where 
they are abundant. 



160 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



New Zealand Flax {Phormium tenax). A distinct plant, 
with smooth, sword-shaped leaves, 4 — 6 feet long, of a firm 
texture and abounding in stout fibre. The flowers are red, 
borne on a scape in panicles. Scape 10 or even more feet in 
height. In New Zealand it occupies large tracts of the 
country, and is used by the natives for making ropes, mats, &c. 
Large quantities have been imported to this country. It is 
tolerably hardy, and about fifty years ago a company was 
established for its cultivation in the South of Ireland, but its 
slow growth caused it to be abandoned. 

Grass Gum Trees (Xanthorrhoea). This remarkable genus 
consists of 9 or 10 species, natives of Australia. They hold 
the same position in Liliacese as Kingia does in Juncaceae. 
Stems cylindrical, formed by the broad bases of grass-like 
leaves, and attaining a foot or more in diameter. X. arhorea 
and X. quadrangularis attain the height of 6 — 10 feet, and the 
flower- stem springs like a stout rod from the centre of the 
crown of leaves, and frequently is 10 — 20 feet long, the upper 
part being densely covered with small yellowish-white flowers. 
The leaves are often burnt by the grass-fires, leaving the 
blackened stems standing, which at a distance have the ap- 
pearance of black men, from which circumstance the name 
" Black boy trees" has been applied to them. The smaller 
species look like thatched beehives. They yield a fragrant 
resin of two kinds, called " Black Boy" and " Botany Bay" 
Gum, and contain abundance of Picric acid, which is exten- 
sively used in the preparation of the highly explosive com- 
pound, " Picrate of Potassium." This acid is used for dyeing 
silk and wool, and imparts to them a yellow colour. The 
gum resin is made into candles, and is used in some Roman 
Catholic churches as incense. 

These plants are of very slow growth, it requiring many 
years before they produce a stem, as shown by an example 
of a plant at Kew thirty years old and still stemless. 



n.g. 




THE LILY FAMILY. 



161 



IV. Dragon-Tree Group. 

Simple or branclied palmids, or annual or perennial leaved 
rhizocorms. Leaves sword-shaped, linear, or elliptical. Fruit 
a berry. 

Dragon s Blood Tree {Draccena Draco). A remarkable tree, 
native of the West Coast of Africa, Canaries, and adjacent 
islands. Young plants of this have a similar appearance to 
Yucca gloriosa, but it grows into a large tree ; after having 
attained a certain height it produces branches. The famous 
Dragon Tree of Orotava, in TenerifFe, believed to be the 
oldest vegetable organism in the world, is stated to have 
been 70 feet high, and 48 feet in circumference. Its stem 
was hollow and had a staircase in it as high as the point 
where its branches commenced. It was entirely destroyed 
in 1(S67, having previously suffered much from storms. A 
portion of one of its branches is preserved in the Kew 
Museum. DraccEna Draco was introduced to the Eoyal Gar- 
dens many years ago, and in 1861: one specimen had attained 
the height of 30 feet, bearing a crown of sword-shaped leaves 
on a cyhndrical stem 6 inches in diameter. The red gum 
called Dragon's Blood is obtained from this plant, but only 
in small quantities. It must not be confounded with the 
Dragon's Blood of commerce, which is obtained from Ca- 
lamus Draco^ a native of Java and Borneo. 

Draccena terminalis is common in the Sandwich Islands 
and in the islands of the Pacific generally, and is known by 
the name of Ti." It has thick fleshy roots which contain 
large quantities of saccharine matter, from which the natives 
extract sugar. They also bake and eat the roots, and a 
spirituous liquor is obtained from them by distiUation. 

Of late years numerous ornamental species of Drac^na 
have come into notice, some having beautifully variegated 
foliage. They are favourite show plants, being frequently 
seen at horticultural exhibitions. 

Bowstring Hemp {Sanseviera guineensis). A native of 
tropical Africa, having long strap-shaped leaves 2 — 4 feet 

M 



162 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



long and 2 — 3 inches wide. >S'. Roxhurghiana, a native of 
India, lias flat leaves similar to the last, but in S. angolensis, 
native of W. Tropical Africa, the leaves are cylindrical, and 
about 1 inch in diameter. The leaves of these plants con- 
tain much fibre, which is used for making ropes, and it is 
stated that the latter produces the best of any kind of fibre 
for deep-sea dredging lines, &c. 

Lily of the Valley (^Convallaria majalis). A native of 
Britain, being generally found in shady places, in woods, and 
is commonly cultivated in gardens for its pure, waxy, sweet- 
smelling flowers. This is not the Lily of the Valley spoken 
of by King Solomon. 

Solomon's Seal {Polygonatmn multifiorum). A plant found 
wild in many parts of England, and is frequently culti- 
vated in gardens. Its creeping roots or rhizomes are in great 
repute, as they quickly remove bruises and discolorations of 
the face resulting from blows. 

V. Asparagus Group. 

Ehizocorms, or partially gemmaecormous herbs, shrubs, or 
trailing, or climbing ampelids. Leaves small, acerose, or 
lanceolate elliptical. Flowers small, not showy. 

The natural habit of this family is similar to sarsaparillas, 
in which family they are placed by some botanists. The 
chief difference is in their leaves not being net-veined. 

Asparagus {Asparagus officinalis). A native of the sea- 
coast in the southern counties of England. It also covers 
large tracts of country in Poland and Russia, and other 
parts of Europe. It is said to have been cultivated by the 
Romans before the Christian era. It is extensively grown as 
a spring vegetable in the vicinity of London and Paris. 
There are several species from S. Africa and India, having 
climbing or trailing stems, often spinose. The climbing 
character of this group is represented in Australia by Eustre- 
phus latifolius and Geitonoplesium cymosum, long since intro- 
duced to this country and cultivated as greenhouse climbers. 



THE LILY FAMILY. 



163 



Allied to Asparagus is the curious genus Ruscus, of which 
Butcher's Broom (^R. aculeatus, R. Hypophyllum^R.Hypoglos- 
sum^ R. racemosus, and R. androgynus) are examples. The first 
four being caespitose shrubs 1—3 feet in height and natives 
of Europe — the latter being a climber from the Canary 
Islands. In all the leaves are alternate, elliptical, acuminate, 
and persistent. Their flowers are small, monoecious, or 
dioecious ; in the three first named species they are borne on 
the disc of the leaves, and in R. androgynus on the margin 
analogous to Xylophylla {see p. 33). This singular mode of 
flowering has led some botanists to consider the so-called 
leaves, branches, but on noting their regular alternate evolu- 
tion, definite size, form, and texture, in conjunction with 
the fact that R. racemosus produces its flowers in terminal 
racemes, quite free from the foliage, I am led to think that 
they are true leaves, having (R. racemosus excepted) the 
floral peduncle adnate, or amalgamated with the midrib of 
the leaf, as is the case with Erythrochiton hypophyllanthus 
and Turnera ulmifolia^ hothouse plants. Ruscus racemosus 
is known as the Alexandrian Laurel. 

Allied to Liliacege is a small family of aquatic plants — 
Pontederacese — consisting of about 30 species, widely dis- 
tributed, but possessing no special economic uses. JPontederia 
cordata, a native of N. America, is a neat plant, with heart- 
shaped leaves and a spike of pretty blue flowers. It is per- 
fectly hardy in this country. P. coerulea is a singular plant 
from the W. Indies and tropical America, having roundish 
heart-shaped leaves borne on a thick, swollen petiole full of 
air-cells, by which the plant floats on the surface of the 
water. It produces offsets freely, soon extending itself over 
a large surface. It rarely flowers in this state, but when it 
becomes attached to the soil its footstalks become long and 
narrow, and it then produces its pretty blue flowers. 



M 2 



164 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



THE SARSAPAEILLA AND YAM ALLIANCE. 

The Sarsaparilla Family. 

(Smilace^.) 

Perennial, often csespitose, woody stemmed climbers, with 
slender root-like rhizomes, rarely herbaceous. Leaves al- 
ternate. 

This family somewhat resembles the next, but is techni- 
cally distinguished by characters in the flower and fruit ; also 
by their stems being firm and woody, and the leaves more 
permanent. 

This alliance presents externally all the characters of ram- 
bling, evergreen, exogenous shrubs. Their flowers are small, 
and generally dioecious. The family is composed of about 
120 species, being widely distributed in both tropical and 
temperate countries. From the genus Smilax the celebrated 
and well-known medicine Sarsaparilla is obtained, being 
extracted from the rhizome-like roots of several species. 
It varies in quality, and consequently in both value and 
usefulness according to the country and particular spe- 
cies from which it is obtained. The principal imports are 
from the West Indies, Brazil, and other parts of tropical 
America. Smilax officinalis^ S. siphilitica, and other species 
also produce the extract ; as also species from the East Indies 
and China. >S'. aspera and 8. mauritanica are natives of 
countries adjoining the Mediterranean, and are hardy in 
sheltered situations in this country. 

Allied to Smilaceas is the family Philesiaceae, which con- 
sists of two known genera — viz., Philesia huxifolia, a pretty 
evergreen shrub with pink tubular flowers. It is a native of 
Chili, and extends to the Straits of Magellan. The other is 
the still more beautiful greenhouse-climber Lapageria rosea^ 
with pendulous, lily-like flowers of Arm substance, and of a 
fine pale crimson or rich rosy colour spotted with white. 



Fl 16 




THE YAM FAMILY. 



165 



This is also a native of Chili, and has a variety (L. rosea v. 
alba) with pure white waxy flowers. 

Another singular climbing plant of this alliance is JRocc- 
lurghia gloriosoides, a native of India, and which is by some 
botanists placed in a distinct family — Roxhurghiacece. 

Another small family of about 30 species, Trilliacece^ is 
also allied, and is chiefly represented by the genera Trillium 
and Paris, which consists of perennial herbaceous plants, 
with whorled leaves, bearing terminal flowers, and are chiefly 
natives of temperate countries, many of North America. 
In this country they are represented by Paris quadrifolia, 
found on the outskirts of woods, but rare. Its roots are of 
a poisonous nature, and the plant is popularly known as 

Herb Paris." 

The Yam Family. 

(DlOSCOEEACE^.) 

Plants with solid, fleshy, underground tubers, or woody 
above-ground corms, and producing climbing stems, which 
are slender, and either perennial or herbaceous. Leaves 
alternate, rarely opposite, more or less heart-shaped, with 
well-marked longitudinal veins, which anastomose laterally. 
Flowers small, produced in loose, pendulous spikes, and 
generally unisexual. About 150 species are enumerated as 
belonging to this family, all being widely distributed through- 
out the tropics, and represented in this country by Black 
Bryony {Tamus communis). An acrid principle is contained 
in most of the species, some even being poisonous, but culti- 
vation renders them harmless. 

Yam (Dioscorea sativa, D. aculeata, and several other 
species), are natives of India and other warm countries of the 
East, where they are extensively cultivated and take the 
place of the potato of more temperate climes. There are 
many varieties varying in size and quality, but all contain 
more or less of a nutritive farina. The yam was early intro- 
duced to the West Indies, where it forms a great part of the 



166 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



food of the negro population. Yams are imported to this 
country, but not in any quantity. 

Chinese Yam (Dioscorea Batatas). This is extensively 
cultivated in China and Japan. It differs from the preceding 
in having a long, spindle-shaped black root, about the size 
of a parsnip, 2 — 3 feet long. It has been introduced to this 
country and is perfectly hardy, indeed at one time expecta- 
tions were entertained that it might prove a good substitute 
for the potato, but as long as potatoes are to be had it will 
not find much favour, being far inferior to them as a 
vegetable. 

Tortoise Plant or Elephant's Foot (Testudinaria elephan- 
tipes). A most remarkable plant, native of South Africa. 
It consists of a large, woody, above-ground corm-stem, 
generally of a conical form, having a diameter of from 3 — 4 
feet, and as much in height, of a fleshy, fibrous substance, 
being covered with a hard, woody, tessellated coat composed 
of numerous angular protuberances, and producing from its 
apex slender, twining, herbaceous stems. Leaves small, cor- 
date. Flowers small, yellow. It was originally used by the 
Hottentots as food, and was called " Hottentot Bread." The 
popular name "Elephant's Foot" is given it from the resem- 
blance which small plants bear to the rough foot of that 
animal. Large plants of it are frequently imported to this 
country. 

Section II. — Ovary inferior. 

THE NAECISS, AMEEICAN ALOE, AND PINE- 
APPLE ALLIANCE. 

The Narciss Family. 

( Amaryll idace^ . ) 

Simple, or rarely branched palmids, or solitary, caespitose, 
perennial phyllocorms, or bulbocormous herbs. Leaves grass, 
strap, or sword-like, or variously oblong elliptical. In 
Agaves thick and fleshy. Inflorescence a simple or branched 



THE NARCISS FAMILY. 



167 



scape, or in some herbs a leafy stem. The simple scapes 
bear one or more flowers enclosed in a spathe, while in 
Agaves the flower-stem is branched 30 — 40 feet high 
Corolla straight, regular, or oblique, and partially bilabiate. 
Fruit a 3-celled, many-seeded capsule ; or succulent, berry- 
like, and few-seeded. This family is represented by plants 
similar in habit and general character to those of the Lily 
family, but differing in the ovary being inferior, the bulbo- 
corms solid, and not coated as in Lilies. 

About 400 species constitute this Family ; they are 
widely distributed in both temperate and tropical countries. 
They vary much in habit, being bulbous rooted plants, re- 
presented in Europe by the Snowdrop and Daffodil. At the 
Cape of Good Hope and in Brazil and Peru, by numerous 
species of Amaryllis. In Mexico and tropical America by 
American Aloes, in tropical Asia by the genus Crinum^ 
while Australia claims the splendid Doryanthes excelsa. 

Daffodil {^Narcissus pseudo-Narcissus). This species, toge- 
ther with Jonquil and the "poet's Narciss," are well known 
spring flowers. They are, however, not entirely harmless, as 
they contain a degree of poisonous acridity. 

Polyanthus Narcissus (Narcissus Tazetta). A native of 
Southern Europe and Western Asia, being abundant in 
Palestine, and during the flowering season it is to be found 
in nearly every house, especially in Damascus. By some 
this is considered to be the "Rose of Sharon"* — the original 
Hebrew word bulb being translated " rose ;" and indeed a 
rosebud is something similar to the bulbs of this plant. 

Belladonna Lily (Amaryllis Belladonna). This, with 
Nerine sarnienis, of the Cape of Good Hope, has become 
naturalized in Guernsey, from whence bulbs are brought 
yearly to the London markets under the name of " Guern- 
sey Lilies." They are easy of cultivation, and flower in the 
open air when planted in a warm, sheltered situation. Many 



* The Song of Solomon, chap. ii. ver. 1. 



168 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



species of Amaryllis having showy flowers are cultivated in 
hothouses. 

Hcemanthus toxicaria is poisonous, and was used by the 
Hottentots for poisoning their arrows. H. puniceus, a native 
of Tropical West Africa, and several other species, have 
beautiful red flowers, which are closely packed together in a 
head, the projecting stamens giving them the appearance of 
brushes. 

American Aloe (Agave Americana). A native of Mexico 
and Central America. It is well known in the gardens of 
this country, and is said to have been introduced about 
the middle of the 16th century. The variety with golden 
striped foliage is the greatest favourite. This plant has 
long enjoyed the reputation of i)roducing its flowers but 
once in a hundred years, and that when it did so it made 
a report like a gun. The truth is, that a plant may be forty 
or fifty years of age before it does flower ; and formerly 
there being but few plants in the country, the report of its 
being in bloom spread rapidly ; this accounts for the latter 
part of the rather fanciful tale. The flower stem grows 
at a rapid rate, often 6 inches per diem. The plant, after 
flowering, dies, but previous to this it throws up numerous 
"suckers," by which the plant is propagated. It has be- 
come naturalized in Spain and other parts of Europe. In 
Mexico it forms impenetrable fences, and is, moreover, of 
great importance to the inhabitants, affording their national 
drink " pulque," which is obtained by cutting out the young 
flower bud, when the cavity becomes filled with liquor, 
which is collected daily. It contains a large quantity of 
sugar, and after fermentation an intoxicating spirit is made 
from it. The odour of the beverage is disagreeable to Euro- 
peans, but the repugnance once overcome it is relished. 

There are many different species of this genus, and also of 
Fourcroya an allied genus. They are common through- 
out Venezuela, New Grenada, and other parts of tropical 
America, being known by the name "Magna." 

Their thick fleshy leaves contain a large quantity of 



THE PINE-APPLE FAMILY. 



169 



strong fibre, the cleaning and preparation of which forms a 
native trading occupation. It is known as "Pita thread," 
and is useful for making ropes, mats, and for many articles 
of domestic use. 

Probably the most remarkable plant of the family is 
Fourcroya longcEva, a native of Mexico. Its stem rises 20 — 
30 feet high, and is 12 inches in diameter, with erect arms 
or branches near the top, each terminated by a crown of 
lanceolate, glaucous leaves. The flower-stem rises from the 
centre of the crown 20 — 30 feet high, bearing numerous pale 
flowers. It forms a peculiar feature in the landscape, and 
presents a striking contrast to the modest Snowdrop {Galan- 
thus nivalis) of this country. 

The Pine -apple Family. 

(BROMELIACEiE.) 

Simple or branched palmids, or solitary or c^spitose peren- 
nial phyllocorms, many epiphytal. Leaves grass, strap, or 
sword-like, or variously oblong elliptical, spreading or erect, 
with their margins imbricated, forming a tube. Flowers in 
spikes, racemes, panicles, or compact heads ; often with large 
showy coloured bracts. Calyx tubular or 3-parted. Petals 3, 
white, pink, or blue. Fruit a dry capsule, or united and suc- 
■ culent, as in the pine-apple. 

Nearly 200 species constitute this family ; they are wholly 
natives of tropical and subtropical America. Tillandsia and 
Billhergia being epiphytal plants, growing in tufts, the bases 
of their closely imbricated, sheathing leaves forming reser- 
voirs which hold water throughout the dry season. 

Pine- apple (^Bromelia ananas). The original country of 
this is supposed to be Brazil ; it first became known to 
Europeans about the middle of the 16th century. It 
now exists in both a cultivated and wild state in all warm 
parts of America. It was introduced to West Tropical 
Africa, where it has become naturalized, as also in the warm 



170 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



parts of Asia. Its fruit consists of a number of ovaries, co- 
hering in a firm head, and terminated by a tuft of small 
leaves. 

The pine-apple appears to have been known in England 
in the time of Charles II., who is recorded as having at a 
royal dinner-party first cut up one, but it is not certain 
whether it was grown in this country or imported. It is 
recorded as having been introduced to this country in 1690, 
and there is evidence of its being cultivated soon afterwards, 
and many varieties are now grown in hothouses. 

Of late years large quantities have been imported from 
the West Indies, chiefly from the Bahamas, and it is not un- 
common to hear the cry of " Pine-apple a penny a slice" 
in towns, but they are inferior to those grown in hothouses. 
The name pine-apple is given on account of the fruit re- 
sembling the cones of the Pine or Fir-tree. In India, 
Burmah, and other parts, the tough fibre of the leaves is 
largely used in the manufacture of textile fabrics. It par- 
takes of the nature of flax, and may be spun very fine. 

The Wild Pine of Jamaica (^Bromelia Pinguin). This has 
long stifiF leaves, with strong spines, forming when growing 
close together an impenetrable barrier. They contain a great 
quantity of fibre useful for rope, or paper making. 

American Moss (Tillandsia usneoides). A small epiphyte, 
native of tropical and subtropical America, growing in pro- 
fusion on the Cypress trees in the regions of the Missis- 
sippi. In Jamaica it is called " Old Man's Beard." It has 
slender leaves, 4 — 6 inches long, which after being subjected 
to some peculiar process it is used as a substitute for horse- 
hair, and is imported to this country. 

Dasylirion acrotrichum. A native of Mexico, having a 
palmid stem 2 or more feet high, terminated by a tuft of 
rigid linear leaves 2 — 3 feet long, from the centre of which 
the flower -stem is produced 15 feet in height. The leaves 
have spiny margins, and contain much fibre. 

Many fine plants belonging to such genera as Billhergia^ 
Tillandsia^ Vriesia, Fuya, DycTcia, Fourretia^ &c., have long 



THE GINGER FAIkllLY. 



171 



been introduced to Kew. Puya chilensis is a native of the 
west coast of tropical America and North Chili, where it 
occupies large tracts forming impenetrable thickets. It has 
long recurved leaves, armed with hooked spines, and con- 
tains fibre in abundance. It forms a branched stem 3 — 4 
feet high. 

Dychia argentea is a beautiful sub-hemispherical plant, 
with gracefuUy recurved silvery leaves 2 feet long, having 
stout hooked spines along their margins. 

THE GINGEE, AND BANANA ALLIANCE. 
The Ginger Family. 

(ZlNGIBERACE^.) 

Herbaceous plants with a creeping rhizome, which is often 
branched, or consists of bunches of tubers; stemless, or 
producing reed-like stems. Flowers radical, or on leafy 
stems. Leaves alternate, entire, elliptical, lanceolate or 
sword-shaped, with parallel veins diverging from the mid- 
rib to the margins. Stem 1 or more flowered, furnished 
■with sheathing bractese. Fruit generally a 3-celled capsule, 
sometimes pulpy and berry-like. 

Ginger (^Zingiber ojjicinale). This is universally cultivated 
throughout the tropics, and it is impossible to state its native 
country, but probably it is India. Ginger of commerce is 
the rhizome or underground stem, which is lobed or fingered 
in a peculiar manner, and produces reed-like stems, clothed 
with grass-like foliage. Many varieties are in cultivation in 
tropical regions. It is imported to this country in its dried 
and bleached state from both the East and West Indies, 
Africa, and China, but Jamaica Ginger is considered the 
best. 

Turmeric {Curcuma longa and C. rotunda). Stemless plants 
having elliptical leaves rising from a fascicle of tuber-like roots 
which differ in form, some being round, others long and 
narrow, but now considered to be only different states of one 
species. 



172 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



It is in general cultivation throughout the whole of the 
Eastern tropics, the Polynesian, and most of the Pacific 
islands. The tubers yield the yellow dye " Turmeric," 
which is used in cookery for colouring curries, confections, 
&c. It is greatly used by the natives of the Pacific islands 
for painting their bodies, which they often do in various 
colours, imitating the dress of Europeans. 

Galangale (^Kcempferia Galanga). This has tuberous roots, 
which are used in India as an aromatic stimulant. It is 
cultivated in hothouses, the flowers making their appearance 
before the foliage, in a manner analogous to the " Autumn 
Crocus." 

Grains of Paradise or Malaguetta Pepper (^Amoinum Grana- 
Paradisi). A native of West Tropical Africa. It throws 
up a reed-like, herbaceous stem, which producoa a terminal 
pod or capsule containing the seeds to whicH the above 
names are applied. They are carminative, aromatic, and 
are fraudulently used to give a false strength to beer and 
liquors. Grains of Paradise are also produced by other 
species of the genus grown in India. 

Cardamoms of commerce are the fruit of Elettaria Carda- 
momuni^ which grows abundantly both wild and cultivated in 
many parts of India, particularly Malabar. It has a reed- 
like stem, which is perennial, producing fruit for several 
successive years. The patent medicine " Solomon's Balm of 
Gilead," is principally prepared from cardamoms. 

Alpinia nutans. A native of India, growing in dense masses 
and having reed-like stems with broad, elliptical, lanceolate 
leaves, and bearing a pendulous spike of white flowers, which 
have a pearl or shell-like appearance. The whole plant is 
strongly aromatic. It is easy of cultivation, and very orna- 
mental in hothouses, as also is the beautiful Hedycliimn 
Gardnerianum, and its congeners H. heteromalum, and other 
species. They have thick fleshy rhizomes, and produce 
leafy stems 4 — 6 feet in height, terminated with cylindrical 
spikes of perfumed yellow or white flowers. 

Costus speciosus, a native of the East Indies, and C. afer^ 



THE ARROW-ROOT FAMILY. 



173 



a native of West Tropical Africa, are handsome plants, 
having round, compact heads of red, yellow, or white flowers. 
The latter species is in great repute as a preventive of 
sea-sickness. 

The Arrow-root Family. 

(Marantace^.) 

These plants agree in habit and general appearance with 
the Ginger family, but they are entirely destitute of aroma, 
have no perfume, and are technically distinguished by their 
broad, petaloid stamens, two of which are rudimentary or 
abortive. 

About 160 species are enumerated as belonging to this 
family. They are decidedly tropical, the greater number 
being from tropical America. Their roots contain a large 
quantity of starch. 

Arrow-root (^Maranta arundinaced). This is extensively 
cultivated in the West Indies, and is a native of tropical 
America. It is a reed-like plant, and arrow-root is ob- 
tained from its fleshy rhizomes by maceration, washing, and 
drying. There are several varieties, one with dark-coloured 
stems and leaves is cultivated in Trinidad. In the East 
Indies arrow-root is obtained from M. ramosissima. The 
name " arrow-root" is said to be derived from the circum- 
stance of the Indians applying the roots to wounds received 
from poisoned arrows. 

A great number of variegated Marantas and Calatheas 
with beautifully mottled or streaked foliage have been intro- 
duced from tropical America, and form attractive objects in 
our hothouses and plant-stoves. Calathea zehrina is a native 
of Brazil, and together with several species of Maranta are 
favourite exhibition plants. 

Indian Shot {Canna indica). A well-known ornamental 
plant, said to be a native of India, but now indigenous to 
most tropical countries. It takes its name from the seeds 
being black and extremely hard, about the size of swan-shot. 



174 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



There are many varieties which are very beautiful summer 
decorative plants, and much used in what is termed subtropical 
gardening. Canna edulis is cultivated in the West Indies, 
its fleshy rhizomes yielding a large quantity of starch, which 
is used for food known as " Tous les mois." 

The Plantain and Banana Family. 

(MUSACE^.) 

Simple palmids or long sheathing phyllocorms, sometimes 
csespitose perennial-leaved rhizocorms. Leaves generally 
large, ovate-lanceolate, or linear elliptical, with sheathing 
footstalks and parallel veins diverging from the midrib. 
Inflorescence spathaceous; spathe persistpnt, with exserted, 
bisexual flowers ; or deciduous, with male and female 
flowers in separate clusters, on a lengthening spadix. Fruit 
a 3-valved capsule ; or succulent as in the Banana. 

This beautiful and useful family is composed of 20 
to 30 species, chiefly natives of the tropics. At the Cape of 
Good Hope the family is represented by the genus Strelitzia. 
The species of most importance to man are those producing 
the Plantain and Banana. 

Plantain (Musa paradisiaca) and Banana {M. sapientum). 
These are generally supposed to be two distinct species, but 
their varieties seem to defy any botanical distinction ; 
the spadix is erect, but more generally it is pendulous. As 
food plants they have been cultivated in all ages through- 
out the tropics, and are now so thoroughly universal, that it is 
extremely diflicult to assign any place as their native habitat. 
They produces food for millions of people, far surpassing in 
quantity that of any other plant in proportion to the space it 
occupies. It has been calculated that the same area required 
to yield 33 lbs. of wheat, or 99 lbs. of potatoes, wiU produce 
4400 lbs. of plantains. 

The young fruit surrounds the flower-stalk or spadix in 



PL 7. 




w h c d e 



THE PLANTAIN AND BANANA FAMILY. 175 



clusters, and when ripe is of a yellow colour, the whole 
bunch weighing from 40 to 60 lbs., sometimes even more. 
Each fruit is from 6 — 8 inches long, and 4 — 5 inches in cir- 
cumference. It is of a soft pulpy nature and agreeable 
flavour, being moreover highly nutritious. The Banana is 
eaten fresh when ripe, but the fruit of the Plantain is roasted, 
and eaten before it attains its full maturity. 

In general the stems of Bananas rise 10 — -15 feet high, and 
are liable to be injured, or even destroyed by high winds. 
There is, however, a variety which has received the name of 
Musa chinensis, and is also cultivated in gardens under the 
name of M. Cavendishii, the stems of which are rarely more 
than 4 — 5 feet high, and very stout. This last variety has 
been successfully introduced into the Navigator's, Feejee, 
and other islands of the Pacific, and is much valued by the 
natives on account of its productiveness. 

After fruiting the stems of these plants die down, but the 
root-stock continues to throw up other stems, which succes- 
sively produce fruit. It is of easy cultivation in the hothouses 
of this country. After the fruit is cut the old stems are useful, 
as they contain a considerable quantity of fibre, and of late 
years machines have been invented, and sent out to the West 
Indies for the express purpose of cleaning the fibre. The 
most important species for this purpose — viz., producing 
fibre, is the Musa textilis, from which "Manilla Hemp" is 
obtained. This substance is extensively prepared in many 
parts of India, as well as in both the Malayan and Philippine 
islands, and is imported in considerable quantities to this 
country, and employed in rope-making, and for other purposes. 
Banana and Plantain leaves are used for many purposes in 
tropical countries. 

Ensete (Musa ensete). This noble plant is a native of 
Abyssinia, and was originally discovered by Bruce, the dis- 
tinguished traveller and collector, more than a century ago. 
His acccount of this plant, like many other parts of his his- 
tory of that country, was doubted until 1853, when seeds 



176 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



and a description of it were sent to the Royal Gardens by W. 
Plowden, Esq., then British Consul in that country. Plants 
raised from these seeds grew rapidly, soon attaining 8 feet 
in height, with a girth at 6 inches above the soil of 7 feet 6 
inches, its leaves being 17 feet long by 3 feet 4 inches wide. 
This plant thus produces the largest entire leaf of any vege- 
table organism at present known. The flower-stalk rises from 
the centre of the plant as in the Banana, and is as thick as a 
man's arm, forming a considerable article of food to the 
natives. The fruit is not succulent, but small and dry, being 
quite useless as food. 

Traveller's Tree (Urania speciosa). This noble plant, the 

Traveller's Tree" of Madagascar, is also known as Ravenala 
Madagascariensis. It has a cylindrical stem, about 1 foot in 
diameter, and 30 or more feet in height. It has large leaves, 
like the Musa ensete, but set in two rows (distichous), and 
have their footstall^s dilated at the base, and clasped round 
the stem. The flower-spike is short and produced from the 
centre, as in Musa. The fruit consists of a dry 3-valved 
capsule, and the seeds are the size of large peas, and are 
surrounded by a woolly coat of a beautiful blue colour 
(arillus). The stems harden, and are used in Madagascar 
for house-building, making durable floors for warehouses, &c., 
for this purpose they are split in halves, and the convex 
side is placed uppermost ; this soon flattens down and be- 
comes extremely hard. 

The broad leaves of this plant are well adapted for collect- 
ing rain water, which trickles down the leafstalk and collects 
in considerable quantities within its sheathing base. If the 
bases of the leafstalks are pierced with a spear the water 
gushes out like a jet, and on this account it has received the 
appellation of " The Traveller's Tree." 

A plant allied to the preceding in habit and mode of growth 
is Strelitzia augusta, a native of South Africa. It difiers, 
however, in the stem being more slender, and it does not be- 
come so hard. In its native country it attains the height of 
20 feet, but there, as also in cultivation, its weighty top causes 



THE BLOOD-ROOT FAMILY. 



177 



it to break over at that height. A plant at Kew being sup- 
ported, formed a stem 34 feet high, and was still progress- 
ing when cut down in 1863. Its flowers are white, and 
small compared with the gigantic proportions of the plant. 
The seeds are like those of Urania, but have a red woolly 
covering instead of blue. The most beautiful flowering species 
is S. Regince, which has no stem, its leaves being borne on 
long footstalks that rise direct from the root. The flowers 
are of the richest orange and purple tints. This plant has 
long been cultivated at Kew, and derived its name in 
honour of the late Queen Charlotte, who was a Princess of 
Mecklenburg Strelitz. In the West Indies and tropical 
America the family is represented by many species of the 
genus Heliconia, which are of various sizes, the characters of 
their leaves being like those of Musa, and their flowers some- 
thing like Strelitzia, being seated in large coloured bracts. 

THE lEIS AND ORCHID ALLIANCE. 
The Blood Root Family. 

(H^MODORACE^.) 

Bulbo-corm or fibrous-rooted herbs, perennial phyllocorms, 
or woody-stemmed, branching shrubs. Leaves always set on 
the stem in two rows {distichous), grass or sword- like. 
Flowers solitary on a long footstalk, or in cymes, or panicles. 
Sepals and petals united, forming a tube, regular, or split on 
one side (as in Anigosanthus). Stamens 3 — 6. Pistil simple. 
Fruit a valved capsule, crowned with the withered perianth, 
sometimes nut-like, few or many seeded. 

About 50 species constitute this family, all being widely 
distributed, their extremes of latitude being N. America and 
Australia. Their economic qualities are not many, but the 
red roots of some are used in dyeing. They contain a 
bitter principle, which is strongly marked in Aletris farinosa, 
a native of the United States, where it is known by the name 
of Colic-root. 

N 



178 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



The genus Vellozia consists of some remarkable plants, na- 
tives of Brazil, being stiff, much branched, screwpine-like 
plants, generally 2 — 3, and some even as much as 10 feet 
in height. They grow mostly in dry places, and when 
abundant give a peculiar feature to the locality. 

The family is represented in the greenhouses of this country 
by several species of Anigosantlius and JBarhacenia, the first 
natives of West Australia, and the latter of Brazil. Species 
of Vellozia have also been introduced, but their culture has 
not been very successful. 

Allied to the preceding in general habit is the family 
Hypoxidacece, which are in general permanent phyllocorms, 
and consist of about 50 species, all widely distributed 
throughout tropical and subtropical regions. At the Cape 
of Good Hope they are strongly represented by the genus 
Hypoxis, and in India and the Mauritius by Curculigo. 
Their principle is bitter. Several species of the two latter 
genera are known in botanic gardens, all having pretty yellow 
flowers. 

The Iris Family. 

(Iridace^.) 

Small branched palmids, or rhizo, or bulbo-corni herbs. 
Leaves grass-like, or sword-shaped, sheathing edgeways in 
two rows. Flowers solitary in spikes, racemes, or panicles, 
at first enclosed in a spath, or sheath-like bract, and generally 
highly coloured. Sepals and petals 3 each, equal or unequal, 
sometimes oblique, or two-lipped. Stamens 3, their bases 
more or less united. Pistil 1, the apex 3 -parted, the lobes 
(stigmas) sometimes broad, petal-like. Fruit consisting of a 
3-celled, 3-valved, many-seeded capsule. 

About 500 species belong to this interesting family, their 
head-quarters being South Africa. In Europe they are re- 
presented by Iris and Crocus ; in North America and China 
by Sisyrinchium ; in tropical and South America by Morcea ; 



THE IRIS FAMILY. 



179 



and in Australia and New Zealand by Patersonia and 
Libertia. 

Tliey are not very valuable in an economic point of view, 
except the rhizomes and tubers of some species being used 
locally in medicine ; a few are eaten as food by the natives of 
South Africa, but they are of a drastic, purgative nature. All 
are favourites in gardens for their splendid flowers. 

Orris-root {Iris fiorentind). A native of the South of 
Europe, and belongs to the group of Iris having thick fleshy 
rhizomes. It has white or pale blue flowers. The roots have 
the odour of violets, and furnish the well known Orris-root 
used in perfumery. 

Fleur de Luce {Iris germanicd). Indigenous to Germany 
and other parts of Europe. It is the common large blue 
Iris well known in gardens, and was an heraldic emblem in 
the arms of the Kings of France. 

The Yellow Iris {Iris Pseud-acorus) and Gladwin or Roast- 
beef Plant {I. fcetidissima). Two beautiful species, natives 
of this country, growing in ditches and on the margins of 
ponds and streams. The seeds of the first are said to have 
been used as a substitute for colFee. 

Corn Flag {Gladiolus communis). A native of the South 
of Europe, the more showy species of this genus being G. 
cardinalis and G. natalensis both from South Africa. Splendid 
hybrid varieties of these have been raised which are very 
attractive, and are highly prized by florists as ornaments for 
the flower garden. 

Safiron {Crocus sativus). A species with blue flowers, 
native of Southern Europe and Western Asia. It has be- 
come wild in this country, and at one time was rather ex- 
tensively cultivated at Saffron Walden. The yellow stigmas 
of the flower are collected, and form the dye known as 

saffron." The principal quantity is imported from Spain and 
Barbary. The immense number of plants may be guessed at, 
it requiring the stigmas of upwards of 4000 flowers to pro- 
duce a single ounce of saffron. It is well known as a valuable 
dye, and is also used for colouring cheese. Saffron is spoken 

N 2 



180 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



of by Pliny as being cultivated in Italy. The common Yellow 
Crocus (C. luteus) and Cloth of Gold Crocus* {C. mcesiacus), 
C. susianus and others, are well known spring flowering 
plants. The shrubby species of the family are represented 
in our greenhouses by Witsenia corymhosa, a native of the 
Cape of Good Hope, which when well grown forms a round 
bushy plant 2 — 3 feet high, having narrow sword-shaped 
leaves, growing on woolly branches. It resembles a minia- 
ture screwpine, and has panicles of pretty blue flowers. 

The Orchid Family. 

(Orchidace^.) 

Plants with special habits, and forms of flowers. 

1. Hypogeous bulbo-corms of various forms, with soft 
flaccid annual leaves, and flower-stems (herbs). The whole 
of the British orchids are examples of this group. 

2. Epigeous and epiphytal bulbo-corms (pseudobulbs), 
with 1, 2, or more firm biennial or perennial leaves {Ly caste ^ 
Peristeria^ Cattleya, Odontoglossum, Stanhopea, &c.). 

3. Epigeous or epiphytal, generally csespitose, perennial 
phyllocorms (Neottia speciosa, N. elata, Galanthe, Cymhi- 
dium, Cypripedium venustvm, and allies). 

4. Fruticuls, epiphytes with distant or contiguous (distichous) 
leaves successively developed from the apex, of a continuous 
progressing stem (as in palmids) : {Aerides, Vandas, some 
Angrcecums, and Vanillas.) 

These represent the principal forms of orchid stems ; but 
there are many special forms, such as the reed-like stems of 
Sohralia • the rod and cord-like stems of Dendrohium calceo- 
laria^ D. Pierardii and allies, which do not well associate 
with the above, and seem to be characteristic of distinct 
groups, t 

In Phalcenopsis, Oncidium luridum, 0. Ceholetta^ and 



* The Song of Solomon, chap. iv. ver. 14. 



t Page 14. 



THE OKCHID FAMILY. 



181 



others, the corm is absent or rudimentary only ; in the one- 
leaved genus Pleurotliallus and its allies, it is more or less 
linear cylindrical, and has the appearance of being the foot- 
stalk of the leaf ; while in Grammatophyllum it is stout and 
cane-like, attaining the height of 5 — 6 feet, being the largest 
orchid corm known. 

In all the leaves are simple, entire, glabrous, rarely pu- 
bescent ; varying in form from cylindrical (spike or rush- 
like) to broad elliptical and subrotund, rarely absent. 
Flowers solitary, in spikes or racemes, rarely in umbels or 
panicles, each flower consisting of 3 sepals and 3 petals of 
various size and form (often grotesque), one always repre- 
senting a labellum (Fig. 4 6), which is plain, cucullate, pitcher- 
shaped, or divided into a fine hair-like fringe (moveable in 
some when touched). Stamens normally 3 (generally the 
two lateral ones abortive, or, as in Cypripedium the central 
one abortive), and with a pistil consolidated, forming a 
gynandrous column, bearing on its apex a deciduous oper- 
culum, under which lies 2 — 8 free masses of generally waxy 
pollen, attached to a viscid gland seated in front of the 
column, two in Hahenaria and Bonatea, being either sessile 
with the pollen masses, or furnished with a thread or strap- 
like appendage (caudicula). Stigma generally in the form 
of a viscid cavity in front of the column, or consisting of two 
projecting lobes, as in Bonatea. Fruit a 3-sided, 3-valved 
capsule, containing numerous membranous very small seeds. 

The late Dr. Lindley, who was a great authority on this 
family, gives in his " Vegetable Kingdom," 3000 as the number 
of species. They are found in nearly all parts of the world, 
those existing in cooler regions having bulbous roots or 
rhizomes, and grow on the earth, many such being also found 
in the tropics, but a great majority of the tropical species 
grow upon trees. 

It is surprising, when we consider the immense number of 
species and the superlative beauty of many of their flowers, 
that the family should possess but few economic uses. They 
have, however, come into great repute within the last forty 



182 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



years as ornamental garden plants, and about 100 of the 
most showy species belonging to the genera Cattleya^ Odonto- 
glossum, Lycaste, Stanhopea, and others of the Western hemi- 
sphere, and Aerides, Vanda, Saccolahium, Dendrohium, and 
Phalcenopsis from the Eastern hemisphere, are well known at 
horticultural exhibitions. A few of small growth are valued 
for the beauty of their leaves. Such as several species of 
Ancectochilus, their colour being of a brownish hue and velvety 
texture, some being striped with white, while A. setaceus, a 
native of Ceylon, called King of the Woods," is netted with 
gold, as is also the rare Stelis calodictyon, a native of the 
Andean regions of Peru. Hcemaria discolor^ Cypripedium 
venustum, and allies, have also brown or variously coloured 
leaves, silvery leaves being represented by Physurus argenteus, 
a native of Brazil. High prices have been paid for some of 
the more showy species, even as much as 901. for a single 
plant, and special collectors have been sent abroad in order 
to collect, and transmit them to this country. 

The interest taken in the cultivation of exotic orchids is 
also shown by the number introduced. In 1825 the Kew 
collection did not exceed 50 species ; in 1854 they had in- 
creased to above 850, but during that period and for ten 
years later it was surpassed by the collection of the late 
Messrs. Loddiges in their long celebrated nursery at Hackney, 
now a thing of the past. The principal collections are now 
to be found in France, Belgium, and Germany. The cata- 
logue of a private collection at Hamburg, published a few 
years ago, contains the names of above 1350 species. In all 
such collections many are of mean appearance, and often with 
small insignificant flowers, but of singular forms, and appre- 
ciated by their possessors as botanical curiosities. Since the 
dispersion of the Hackney collection and the fashionable 
patronage of late years of the cultivation of show flowers, 
many orchids of botanical curiosity have disappeared from 
the collections of this country. 

In this country the family is represented by about 40 
species, which are also common to Europe, consisting of 



THE ORCHID FAMILY. 



183 



perennial plants with fleshy bulb-like roots, and generally 
found in moist meadows, pastures, the margins and open 
parts of woods ; some species grow in chalky soils ; the 
greater number are found in the southern counties, but 
specimen collectors and hawkers are fast hastening their 
extinction. Many species have very peculiar flowers, being 
in the form of insects, as bees, flies, &c. : the Bee Orchis 
{Ophrys apifera) ; Fly Orchis (0. muscifera) ; Spider Orchis 
{0. araniferd)\ Lizard Orchis (Orc^^s ^zrcma) ; Man Orchis 
{Aceras anthropophora). The tropical species also present 
very singular and curious forms, as the Butterfly Orchid 
(Oncidium Papili6)\ Night Moth Plant (Phalcenopsis ama- 
MUs); Dove Plant, "El Spirito Santo," or Holy Ghost 
Plant, of the Peruvians (Feristeria elata),. and many others 
too numerous to mention here. (See page 45.) 

Vanilla ( Vanilla plant folia). An epiphytal plant growing 
like ivy, with thick laurel-like leaves, a native of the West 
Indies and tropical America. It has insignificant greenish 
flowers, and produces a pod-like fruit 5 — 10 inches long, and 
1 inch in circumference, which is well known for its grate- 
ful aromatic qualities, and its uses in confections, perfumery, 
and medicine. In commerce, it is, in proportion to bulk, 
the highest priced vegetable production imported. The 
greatest importation to this country is from the eastern parts 
of Mexico. It is now cultivated in Guiana, and other parts 
of tropical America, as also in Ceylon, India, and other parts 
of the East. 

Salep. Orchis mascula, 0. Morio, 0. militaris, 0. pyra- 
midalis, and all the bulbous European species, produce the 
starchy-mucilaginous substance commonly known as " salep," 
which is obtained by macerating the bulbs in water. It 
contains a chemical substance called bassorine, which is 
said to contain more nutritive matter than any other vege- 
table product, one ounce per diem being sufficient to sus- 
tain a man. Large quantities of " salep" are prepared in 
• Macedonia and Greece, but the finest comes from Turkey. 
In the Himalaya and Cashmere many species of bulbous- 



184 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



rooted orchids yield salep, which is largely used as food by 
the natives. 

Eock Lily {Dendrohium speciosum). A native of New 
South Wales, growing upon rocks. It has large pseudo- 
bulbs, the size of cucumbers, which are said to be eaten by 
the natives. It has a long spike of white showy flowers. 
New South "Wales contains a large number of terrestrial 
species, all of which are both beautiful and interesting. 

With regard to the fertilization of the ovary of orchids 
early botanists entertained two different opinions ; one that 
the fertilizing essence of the pollen passed through the caudi- 
cula and gland to the stigma ; the other that the pollen came 
in direct contact with the stigma, as is the case in ordinary 
flowers. After many experiments carried on for several years 
on plants under my notice at Kew by the "Prince of Bota- 
nists," Dr. Eobert Brown, he in 1833 published the result 
of his observations, proving the latter to be the correct view, 
the principles of which I have briefly explained at page 32. 
But with regard to orchids it is necessary to explain the im- 
portant part performed by the gland ; in general its size and 
form may be compared to a small teat or pin-head, which on 
being touched by the finger, pencil-point, or the like, it ad- 
heres, and on moving the hand the attached pollen-masses 
are drawn out from under the operculum. On applying a 
pollen-mass to the moist surface of the stigma it immediately 
adheres and becomes absorbed. Soon after this, the aspect 
of the flower changes ; the splendid flowers of Cattleyas be- 
gin to fade the following day ; others change colour, and in 
some the parts of the flower increase in size ; but the most 
important effect is that produced on the ovary, which gra- 
dually increases in size, and in time becomes a capsule with 
perfect seeds. With very few exceptions the fertilization of 
orchids does not take place without artificial aid ; in nature 
the chief operators being insects, by the gland adhering to 
their bodies, and with the pollen-masses are conveyed from 
flower to flower, and by the movement of the insect in the 
flower the pollen thus comes in contact with the stigmas. In 



THE ORCHID FAMILY. 



185 



the genus Gatasetum the caudicle is in the form of a strap, 
which is highly elastic; on being touched, or the parts of 
the flower disturbed, it springs out with a degree of force to 
the distance of a foot or more, carrying with it the pollen and 
gland, the latter adhering to whatever surface it strikes 
against; instances are known of its striking the face, causing 
dismay to unwary observers. 

The labellum of some species is attached as it were by a 
fine hinge, the least motion causing it to vibrate. In Bolbo- 
phyllum harhigerum it consists of a tuft of brown, nearly erect 
hairs, like a little brush, the least motion of the air causing it 
to bend down, but quickly regaining its position, giving the 
idea of nodding or bowing, and it does this by the motion of 
the breath in speaking at a yard or more distant, and many have 
been deceived by the idea that it was voluntarily bowing to 
them. This motion is, however, only mechanical, and quite 
different from the sensitive motion of the lip of Pterostylis. 

I have now stated sufficient to show the curiosity of orchids, 
which will be found verified on reading Mr. Darwin's book 
lately published on the " Fertilization of Orchids." 

A family very nearly related to the orchids, is Aposta- 
siaceas — a group of perennial plants of which there are 
said to be 5 species, natives of India. 

Another family, Burmanniace£B, consists of about 30 
species, being small perennial plants, natives of the tropical 
parts of both hemispheres. 

Also we may here notice a small group of curious plants 
— Triuridacese, consisting of about 8 species, natives of 
Brazil, Ceylon, and Java. They are small translucent peren- 
nial plants, with simple, erect stems and pale leaves, destitute 
of nerves. Flowers minute, on spikes or racemes. They 
are only interesting botanically. Botanists entertain different 
views of their relationship; some place them with Bur- 
mannia, which is also of doubtful affinity. 



186 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



CLASS IV.— GYMNOSPEEMS. {Gijmnogens. 
Lindley.) 

Seed a naked ovule ; embryo with one cotyledon 
(Cycads) or two or more (Conifers). Leaves free veined. 
Stems endogenous (Cycads) or exogenous (Conifers). 

Fig. 13. 




d. Leaf of ditto ; e. Section of stem of Cycas. 



The mode of fertilization and nature of the seeds 
(fruit) of the plants in this family is of a special cha- 
racter. The flowers so called are unisexual, and desti- 
tute of calyx and corolla; the male consists of sessile 
anthers, seated on the scales of cones or catkins, the 
female being represented by an ovule only, destitute of 
ovary, style, and stigma ; fertilization being effected by 
the pollen coming in direct contact with the apex of the 
naked ovule, which in time becomes an albuminous nut- 
seed, destitute of a true seed coat. 



THE CYCAS FAMILY. 



187 



They are either produced solitary, as in the Yew, or 
few or many in cones, as in Firs, or in globose, or horned 
galbules, as in the Evergreen Cypress, and Arbor Vitse. 

This class comprises the Cycas, Fir, and Yew families, 
their special bond of union consisting in their seed 
ovules being destitute of a coat or covering (thus dif- 
fering from the usual structure of seeds). They are 
classed by most botanists under Exogens, and which is 
the proper place for the two latter families. But having 
witnessed the germination of many seeds of Oycads, it 
enables me to say that the embryo has only one coty- 
ledon, and also that the structure of the stem is endo- 
genous, as in Palms. Such being the case, gymnogens 
may be considered to form two natural sub-classes. 
First, gymnospermous-endogens, the Cycas family ; 
second, gymnospermous-exogens, the Fir and Yew fa- 
mily. 

I. Gymnospermous Endogens. 
The Cycas Family. 

(CyC ADAGES.) 

Stem globose or cylindrical (Palmids), unbranched (rarely 
forked), their substance composed of three or more concen- 
tric zones of firm pith, alternating with a narrow zone of 
woody fibre, the outer consisting of the bases of the fallen 
leaves, which represent bark, the lateral extension being very 
limited. Leaves, few or many, terminal ; simply, or rarely 
twice-winged ; generally very rigid, with or without a mid- 
rib, and with free veins. Fructification in terminal dioecious 
cones, formed of fleshy scales. Seed a naked ovule, being a 
waxy or horny albuminous nut, the embryo germinating with 
one cotyledon (fig. 13, a). 

This remarkable family of plants consists of about 50 
species, all being widely distributed within or near the 



188 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



tropics of Asia, Africa, America, and Australia. The stems 
of the whole species consist of a pithy matter containing 
starch. 

Cycas revoluta. Supposed to be a native of China and 
Japan, but also found in a wild state in New Guinea, and 
many of the islands of the Pacific. It has become natu- 
ralized in the West Indies, and has been long introduced to 
this country, being highly prized as an ornamental plant, 
often having a stem 3 — 4 feet in height, and from 6 — 8 
inches in diameter. In China and Japan, and also in 
Jamaica, a kind of sago is obtained from the pith of the stem. 

Cycas circinalis. This is abundant in Malabar and many 
parts of India, as well as in the Malay, Molucca, and other 
islands. It is a taller growing species than the preceding, 
having a trunk about 6 inches in diameter, which attains the 
height of about 20 feet, and is sometimes forked. A kind of 
sago is obtained from its stem, and in New Ireland and other 
islands the natives make use of the large nutty seeds for 
food. 

Caffre Bread {Zamid) {Encephalartos) {Caffre or E. lon- 
gifolius). A native of South Africa, attaining the height of 
10 — 15 feet, with a diameter of about a foot. The sub- 
stance of the stem is mucilaginous, and the natives bury 
it in the ground for a time, which causes the pulpy centre 
to loosen and partially ferment; it is then dried, baked, and 
used as food by the CafiTres. It is, with other allied species 
of slow growth, like palms taking many years before the 
normal diameter of the stem is formed. The leaves are pro- 
duced annually in a fascicle of about 20 ; the circle formed 
by the bases of the leaves of each succeeding fascicle being 
closely seated on the preceding one, consequently the yearly 
increase of the stem is limited to the vertical diameter of the 
base of the leaf, which, in this species is about f of an inch. 

In 1775 a plant of this species was introduced to Kew, but 
its size at that time is not known; in 1822 it was considered 
a remarkable plant, being then a foot in height, with a 
crown of leaves forming a diameter of about 8 feet; it is 



THE CYCAS FAMILY. 



189 



now (1870) 4 feet high, with a girth of 3 feet 11 inches; 
thus growing 3 feet in 48 years, which gives | of an inch 
yearly. It has several times produced male cones 2 feet in 
length. 

Zamia {Macrozamid) Denisoniana. A native of New South 
Wales. Although originally known as a low plant, it has 
been seen in the Richmond River district 30 or 40 feet 
high ; according to the observed rate of growth, such 
plants cannot be less than five hundred years of age. It has 
long slender leaves, like palms, which are used in Roman 
Catholic churches in Australia on Palm Sunday. An allied 
species, M. Fraseri, is foun^ in Western Australia ; it has a 
thick trunk, often 8 or 10 feet high. Several remarkable 
species have lately been discovered in Queensland, one 
60 feet in height.* About the year 1802, during Captain 
Flinders' voyage, a leaf of a plant was gathered at Rock- 
ingham Bay which puzzled the most eminent botanists, up to 
the rediscovery of the plant, in 1862, by Mr. Walter Hill, 
who sent specimens and living plants of it to Kew. It dif- 
fers from all the rest of the family in having leaves twice- 
winged (bipinnate), very much resembling some species of 
the Fern genus Marattia ; it has proved to be a new genus, 
and has received the name of Bowenia spectahilis. There 
are several species of the family found in Mexico and Central 
America, but none extending south of the equator. 

Dion edule, a native of Mexico, is a curious plant, old 
plants of it having stems 3 — 4 feet high, with leaves of 
equal length, in which the pinnse are set very close, even 
imbricate, and being very hard and stiff, and of a bluish colour, 
give the feeling and appearance of metal. Its seeds are eaten. 

Ceratozamia is another genus of the family, chiefly differing 
by the scales of the cone being two-horned, and the foot- 
stalks of the leaves prickly, as in C. Mexicana. 

Zamia integrifolia and Z. furfuracea. The first, native of 



* Authority, Mr. Walter Hill, director of the Brisbane Botanic 
Garden. 



190 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



East Florida, and the latter of the Bahamas, and other small 
West India islands, where it grows in abundance. It yields 
sago, which is much used in Jamaica. 

Stangeria paradoxa. A remarkable plant, native of Natal. 
It has a fleshy obconical stem, 6 or more inches in height 
(according to age), and about 3 or 4 inches in diameter, from the 
top of which are produced winged leaves, one at a time, 2 to 
3 feet in length, the pinnae being lanceolate, having a midrib 
with divergent veins like many Ferns, being in some respects 
similar to Lomaria^ in which genus it was first placed by an 
eminent botanist, under the name of L. eriopus ; but its 
fructification being found in cones proved it to belong to 
Cycads. Hitherto fossil Cycads were distinguished from 
fossil Ferns by their veins being always longitudinal and 
parallel without a midrib, but Stangeria having a midrib and 
divergent veins, destroys that distinguishing character. 

Fossil remains of this class of plants are abundantly found 
in the Isle of Portland, Yorkshire, North of Scotland, France, 
Eussia, India, and China ; but it is singular that none have 
yet been found in Australia or South Africa, where they 
exist in a living state, as above shown, and with those of 
America "may be viewed as the living representatives of the 
fossils csilled Lejndodendi^on, Sigillaria^ Calamites, &c., which 
at some remote period must have formed a peculiar feature 
in the flora of the earth. 

Sub-Class 2. Gtmnospermous Exogens. Fig. 13, c. 

This comprehends all the trees and shrubs known as Coni- 
ferae (cone-bearing), of which there are about 200 species 
known, the difference in their fructification being considered 
sufl&cient to give character to three families — viz., Pinaceae, 
Taxaceae, and Gnetaceae. 

Although their branched character as Exogenous trees 
differs widely from that of Cycads, they nevertheless possess 
points of relationship besides that of the naked ovule. In 
most of the cone-bearing genera their branches are annually 



CONIFERS. 



191 



produced in a whorl ; the distance between the whorls being 
the growth of each year, in that respect analogous to the in- 
crease in the stem of Cycads consequent on the annual de- 
velopment of a whorl of leaves, as explained in the Cycads ; 
the leaves of which being long permanent may be viewed as 
partaking of the nature of branches. The leaves of the genus 
Pinus, Araucaria, and others, agree with those of Gycas in 
having a midrib only ; while the broad leaves of Dammara 
have longitudinal veins without a midrib, and thus coinciding 
with Zamia Skinneri and other American species. The 
structure of the wood of Coniferge differs from that of other 
trees (Magnolia excepted) in the tissue containing numerous 
circular clear dots arranged in lines, which may be seen by 
placing a thin shaving from any kind of fir- wood on glass, 
moistened with water, and viewed under the microscope. 

With the exception of food-producing families, Coniferse 
may be viewed as the next in importance to man in many 
countries. They are not only valued for their timber, but 
also for their products of tar, pitch, and turpentine. In 
this country the timber known as pine, fir, and spruce is the 
principal wood employed in house and shipbuilding and 
erections of all kinds ; also for making implements, and 
many articles of domestic economy, even lucifer-matches. 
Under certain conditions coniferous wood appears to be in- 
destructible ; in the north of Scotland trees are found im- 
bedded in peat bogs ; their resinous nature and the antiseptic 
property of the peat preserves them from decay. They are 
split into laths, and used as candles, the resin they contain 
causing them to burn with a steady flame. The hard resinous 
knots common to fir timber are formed by the bases of the 
dead branches becoming imbedded in the body of the tree. 

The numerous piles lately discovered in the Swiss lakes 
are found to be coniferous wood, and being pre-historic must 
be viewed as the oldest remains known of the work of man on 
wood (page 120). 



192 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



The Fir and Cypress Family. 

Shrubs, small or large trees, many with their branches 
whorled. Leaves perennial, rarely annual, solitary, or two 
or more in a fascicle, of firm texture and sharp-pointed, with 
a midrib only, or with longitudinal parallel veins without a 
midrib. In form they are acerose, subulate (needle or awl- 
like), rusciform, lanceolate or broad elliptical, or small, 
scale-like and imbricate, forming thyclads (p. 24). Flowers 
monoecious or dioecious. Fruit a cone or galbulus (in Juni- 
perus berry-like), containing naked or winged seeds. A bal- 
samic fragrance pervades the whole family. 

Sectional view of the principal genera represented by species 
growing in this country. 
Seed in Cones. 

Leaves with a midrib only. 

Leaves two or more in a fascicle. 

Pinus and Larix. 
Leaves free, distinct. 

Abies, Picea, Araucaria, Cedrus. 
Cunninghamia. 
Leaves destitute of a midrib. 
Dammara. 
Seeds in Galbules, in some cone-like. 

Leaves small subulate distinct, closely imbricated, 
often scale-like. 

Sequoia (Wellingtonia) Cryptomeria. 
Sciadopitys, Libocedrus, Thuja, Fitzroya. 
Saxe Gothaea, Cupressus, Callitris. 
Thujopsis, Arthrotaxis, Microcachrys. 
Juniperus, Retinospora, Widdringtonia. 
Taxodium, Glyptostrobus. The leaves of the 
two latter genera are annual. 
On account of numerous discoveries of late years the 
number of species in this family probably reaches 200, about 
100 of which belong to the genus Pinus. They are widely 



Tin. 




THE FIR AND CYPRESS FAMILY. 193 



distributed over the earth ; the greatest portion being found 
in temperate regions, extending to the utmost limit of tree 
life in the north polar regions ; they are also found in warm 
climates. 

Pine forests form a grand feature in the northern hemi- 
sphere, while Araucarias and Dammars take their place in 
the southern. In the Andean region of Mexico a number of 
species of Pinus^ along with oaks, form extensive forests ex- 
tending north through California and North-west America, 
where very large trees are met with. They are all of a 
highly resinous nature ; their timber and other products 
form great articles of commerce. It would occupy too much 
space to give details of the whole, but the following are the 
most important. 

Scotch Fir (Pinus sylvestris). This well known tree has 
an extensive range throughout Europe and Northern Asia, 
where it forms large forests, such as may be seen in the north 
of Scotland, some trees attaining the height of 100 feet, and 
affording excellent timber, which is imported from the ports 
in the Baltic under the name of Riga and Norway timber. 
The smaller trees are used for scaffold poles. It also yields 
tar. 

The word fir is frequently named with cedar and other 
trees, which Solomon obtained from Lebanon for the building 
of the Temple. One of these was doubtless Pinus hcdepensis, 
which takes the place in Lebanon and other mountains of 
Palestine of the Scotch fir, and may be admitted to be the 
fir-tree, instead of cedar used for ship-masts, as stated in 
Ezekiel, chap, xxvii. ver. 5. 

Pitch Pine (Pinus palustris, or P. australis). A na- 
tive of the Southern United States, where it covers exten- 
sive tracts, making its appearance in all waste places and 
quickly occupying worn out cotton fields. This and the 
Scotch fir afford the largest quantity of tar and turpentine 
of commerce. The former is obtained in the following 
manner by what is termed distillation; the boles, roots, 
branches, and waste timber are cut up into billets ; a conical 

O 



194 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



hole is dug in the ground, generally in the side of a bank, 
in which the billets are placed and formed into a heajD 
above the surface, the whole being closely and compactly 
covered with turf or earth, a fire is then kindled from be- 
low and the slow combustion causes the tar to exude from 
the wood, and IIoav from an opening into barrels placed below 
to receive it. The greatest quantities used in this country 
are imported from the United States, from ports in the 
Baltic, and Archangel. Tar by distillation yields the pro- 
ducts wood vinegar (pyroligneous acid), oil of tar, and 
creosote, and leaves a resinous residue called common pitch ; 
the principal quantity of pitch, however, is obtained by 
boiling tar ; by evaporation the volatile oil passes off, and it 
hardens. 

The above method of obtaining tar and pitch was described 
by Theophrastus 2200 years ago. Turpentine is the fluid 
juice of fir trees, which flows freely when wounds are made in 
the bark. It is composed of volatile oil and resin, and hence 
is termed oleo-resin, but by distillation their component 
parts are separated ; the former constitutes what is called 
oil of turpentine, and the latter the well known resin. The 
greatest quantity of turpentine used in this country is im- 
ported from America. 

Pinus Pinaster^ P. Laricio and P. maritima. All natives 
of Southern Europe. They are planted on the low shore in 
the West of Ireland, Normandy, and other places for fixing 
the sands, where they form a thick low bush, but in favour- 
able situations they attain the size of lofty trees. The first- 
named produces Bordeaux turpentine. 

Stone Pine (Pinus Pinea). A low bushy tree, native of 
the South of Europe, growing freely in this country. The 
seeds are large and nutty, and are eaten. There are many 
Pinuses of value in their native countries for their timber, 
such as P. Lambertiana, P. Coulterii, P. Sahimana, P. ma- 
crocarpa^ and P. ponderosa, all large trees of California and 
North West America. Their nutty seeds form the principal 



THE FIR AND CYPRESS FAMILY. 195 



winter food of tribes of Indians, and even the bark of some 
is eaten. They are all hardy in this country, as also P. ex- 
celsa of the Himalayas, the latter being the same as P. pence 
found in Macedonia. 

All the above species belong to the true pine and fir group, 
and are known by having from two to five needle-like leaves 
in a sheath, thus distinguishing them from the spruce 
group. 

Spruce Fir (Abies excelsa). A native of the Northern and 
Alpine regions of Europe, and is said to attain the height of 
from 100 to 150 feet. It grows freely in this country, and 
when standing singly forms a beautiful tree equal to the 
Araucaria of Norfolk Island. It has drooping cones six 
inches in length, the scales of which are permanent. It is 
valued for its timber, which is imported from ports of the 
Baltic under the name of white deal ; it furnishes a resin 
from which true Burgundy pitch is made. A kind of frank- 
incense is also obtained from it, and the young branches 
are boiled for making spruce beer. It extends to the re- 
gions of the icy sea in 70° north latitude, where trees of no 
great size have been cut down showing 300 annual rings, 
consequently that number of years old. Pinus Cemhra has 
been found in the same locality having an equal number of 
rings. 

AUes Douglasii. An immense tree of this group, native 
of North West America, where it is said to attain the height 
of 200 or more feet ; its wood is soft and brittle. A speci- 
men, called the flag-staff, has been erected at Kew, measuring 
159 feet in height. 

Silver Fir {Picea pectinata). A native of Europe and 
Northern Asia. It takes its name from its silvery white 
leaves, and attains a great height, it is even said above 
200 feet, and when standing singly is a beautiful tree. A 
resin is obtained from it, which when purified, is called 
Strasburgh turpentine. 

Picea halsamea. A native of Canada and other parts of 
o 2 



196 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



North America. Its leaves are silvery- white on the under- 
side ; the cones yield a turpentine called Canada balsam, 
which is used for preserving microscopic objects. 

There are many noble species of Picea natives of California, 
such as P. nobilis, P. Menziesii, P. hracteata ; also the beau- 
tiful P. Wehhiana of North India, but the latter is, unfor- 
tunately, not hardy in this country. P. Cephalonica and P. 
Pinsapo, natives of the South of Europe, form beautiful orna- 
mental trees in this country. 

Abies and Picea are distinguished from Pinus by their 
leaves not being in sheaths ; and A hies and Picea differ in 
the cones of the first being pendulous and the scales per- 
manent, while in Picea the cones are erect and the scales 
deciduous, leaving the centre axis standing like a spike. 

Larch {^Larix europoea). The larch forms large forests in 
Switzerland and other parts of Europe, and is extensively 
planted in this country for its timber. It forms an orna- 
mental tree sometimes attaining a great height, and is the 
only European species of the family that sheds its leaves. 
In Scotland (Perthshire) trees are to be found measuring 
21 feet in circumference. 

Larix Kcempferi. A native of China, is in habit similar to 
the European larix, but with a more glaucous hue in the 
leaves, and is called the Golden Larch. It is described 
by Mr. Fortune as attaining the height of 120 to 130 feet, 
with a clear stem of 50 feet and a girth of 5 feet near the 
ground. It was introduced about fifteen years ago, grows 
freely and appears quite hardy. It yields Venice Tur- 
pentine. 

Cedar of Lebanon {Cedrus Lihani). A native of Western 
Asia, the earliest and best known being those of Mount 
Lebanon ; it is also found on Mount Taurus and other moun- 
tain ranges of Asia Minor. The cedar is of ancient fame, 
and is first brought especially into notice by King Solomon 
sending to Hiram,* King of Tyre, for cedar trees to build 



* 1 Kings, chap. v. ver. 2. 



THE FIR AND CYPRESS FAMILY. 



197 



his Temple with. But it is doubtful if the word cedar 
was not also applied to other trees, and which is probably 
the abundance of fine oak and other timber was 

more conveniently obtained in the vicinity of Mount Le- 
banon, than in getting cedar trees through the difficult 
passes from the cedar regions which, according to modern 
measurement, is an elevated plain of 6172 feet above the 
level of the sea. The area now occupied does not exceed a 
quarter of a mile in diameter, on which grow in nine groups, 
about 400 trees. They vary from 18 inches to 14 feet in 
diameter, and the oldest is supposed to be two thousand five 
hundred years old, which, if correct, proves that none of 
these trees were growing in the time of Solomon. The cedar 
was introduced to this country not more than two hundred 
years ago ; the once fine trees in the vicinity of the Pagoda 
at Kew being about one hundred and twenty years old. In 
this country its timber is not in much repute. 

Deodar (Cedrus Deodara). A native of the Himalayan 
mountains, where it forms large forests, some trees attaining 
the height of 100 feet. Its timber is much valued and used 
in India. It was introduced to this country in 1831. When 
young it grows freely, but is liable to suffer in severe win- 
ters, and it is probable it will never equal the Cedar of 
Lebanon as an ornamental tree in this country. 

Atlas Cedar (^Cedrus Atlanticd). A native of the Atlas 
mountains in Algeria. It attains a large size, and has been 
introduced to this country ; the leaves are longer than the 
Deodar or Cedar, and it is of faster growth. Some writers 
consider this and the two preceding as only varieties of one 
species, but whether they are from one original, and their 
present apparent distinctions consequent on climate, it is im- 
possible to ascertain. 

Cryptomeria Japmica. A lofty evergreen tree, native of 
Japan and North China, where its timber is used for many 
purposes. It was introduced in 1843, and being hardy, 
a free grower, and of graceful habit, forms an ornamental 
tree. 



198 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Kauri Pine (Dammara australis). A noble tree, native of 
New Zealand, where it attains the height of 200 feet, and as 
the stems of old trees are perfectly clean and free of branches 
for a considerable height, they are greatly valued, and are 
imported as spars for ships of war. A great quantity of 
clear resin, like copal, flows from it, which is imported to 
this country for varnish making. 

Dammar Pine {Dammara onentalis). A large tree of 
Amboyna in the Molucca Islands. It yields the fine resin 
called Dammar. Three or more species of a like nature are 
found in New Caledonia, New Hebrides, Fiji, and also in 
Queensland, examples of which, with the two preceding, may 
be seen at Kew. 

Chili Pine (Araucana imbricata). A native of the Andean 
range of Chili, where it attains a great height, and forms 
large forests. This remarkable plant was first introduced in 
1794, living plants having been brought home by Archibald 
Menzies, surgecn and botanist in Vancouver's voyage of 
survey. At a dinner given by the Viceroy of Chili to the 
officers of the ship, part of the dessert consisted of some kind 
of nuts, which being strange to Menzies, he took some of 
them on board the ship and sowed them in a box of earth, 
where they vegetated, and five plants were safely brought to 
England. One of these plants is still growing at Kew, another 
at Windsor Castle, and a third at Dropmore, the latter having 
outgrown the other two, and is now a fine tree 50 feet high. 
In many parts of the country some trees have been injured 
and others quite killed by the severe frosts of 1867 ; but the 
Dropmore tree is uninjured. A. hrasiliensis is a native of 
the Organ mountains of Brazil, and has the general appear- 
ance of the above, but its leaves are less in size and not so 
closely imbricated ; and altogether it is apparently a more 
slender tree, and not hardy in this country. 

Norfolk Island Pine {Araucaria excelsa). A native of 
Norfolk Island, and attains the height of above 200 feet. 
Two closely allied species, A. CooTcii and ^. Rulei^ are immense 
trees, natives of New Caledonia; A. Cunninghami and A, 



THE FIR AND CYPRESS FAMILY. 



199 



Bidwilli are natives of Queensland, the latter being called 
" Bunya Bnnya,"and the natives periodically visit the forests 
for the purpose of eating the nuts. They are all valuable 
timber trees, but tender in this country. Fine specimens 
may, however, be seen at Kew, two of A. excelsa being intro- 
duced in 1793, and now form ornamental trees in the con- 
servatory. 

Eedwood {Sequoia sempervirens). A native of California, 
attaining the height of more than 300 feet. It has been intro- 
duced to this country and found perfectly hardy, some 
specimens being from 30 to 40 feet high, forming fine orna- 
mental trees. 

Mammoth Tree {Sequoia gigantea). This was supposed to 
be a distinct genus from Sequoia, and on account of its large 
size English botanists named it after the great warrioi-, the 
Duke of Wellington, thus giving it the name of Wellingtonia 
gigantea. Careful examination has, however, shown me that 
it is in no way distinct as a genus from Sequoia. It is a 
native of California, and for some time was thought only to 
grow in one locality, called the Mammoth grove ; it has, 
however, been found in several other mountain ranges, but 
not equal to the size first discovered. Its immense size was 
well known to visitors to the Crystal Palace, by a portion of 
the thick bark of one of the trees being set up in the position 
it occupied when growing, showing its natural dimensions ; 
the height of the tree felled being 327 feet, and 30 feet in 
diameter at the ground.* The wood is soft and not durable. 
It grows freely and fast in this country, forming as yet a 
very ornamental tree, some having already attained the 
height of 30 feet. 

Deciduous Cypress {Taxodium distichuTn). A tree of con- 
siderable size, native of the Southern United States, having 
horizontal branches, and small flat leaves set in two rows 
(distichous), and are deciduous ; it is perfectly hardy in this 
country, attaining the height of 50 or more feet. Its heart 



* Destroyed by fire in 1867. 



200 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



wood is of a beautiful pink red colour, but soft. It is re- 
markable for the hollow excrescences produced by the roots 
at a considerable distance from the tree, which rise to the 
height of 2 or 3 feet ; they are used for many domestic 
purposes in its native country. 

One of the few rare trees left in the original arboretum 
ground at Kew is a species of Cypress planted one hundred 
years ago by the first Alton, who considered it a variety of C. 
disticha, but the time of its introduction and native country is 
not specially recorded. During the last fifty years it has been 
known by the name of Cupressus, or Taxodium pendula; it 
is now about 35 feet high, with a girth of 2 feel, and in 
general habit resembles C. disticha — more slender in growth, 
with drooping branchlets and longer leaflets, not distichous. 
A few years ago it flowered, which enabled it to be identified 
as a native of China, and has been characterized by the 
botanist Endlicher as a distinct genus — Glyptostrohus {G. 
pendula). A species described as growing in the vicinity of 
Canton, which may be considered as the locality fi:om 
which the Kew plant came, and probably the same species, 
but which does not appear to have been again reintro- 
duced. 

Evergreen Cypress (Cupressus sempervirens) . A native of 
Western Asia. It has long been cultivated in this country 
and throughout the southern parts of Europe. It is much 
planted about Mohammedan burial-grounds, as may be seen 
in the neighbourhood of Constantinople. It attains the height 
of from 40 to 60 feet, but in this country seldom reaches 
20, and maintains a compact pyramidal form. Some Bible 
commentators suppose it to be the " Gopher wood" of 
which Noah was commanded to build the ark. But there is 
no evidence to prove this as being the tree. It grows on 
Mount Lebanon, and is probably one of the trees spoken of 
as " cedar" in Solomon's time. 

Cedar of Goa {Cupressus Lusitamca). Said to be a native 
of the Western Peninsula of India, and introduced by the 
Portuguese from Goa to Portugal, wbere it forms natural 



THE FIR AND CYPRESS FAMILY. 



201 



forests j it is not sufficiently hardy to stand the winters of 
this country. Allied to these is C. macrocavita^ a large tree, 
native of California, and up to 1867 supposed to be hardy, 
but the severity of that winter destroyed nearly all the plants 
in the country, the original ones being nearly thirty years 
old. 

Funeral Cypress (^Cupressus funehris) . A remarkable tree, 
native of China, having pendulous branches like the weeping 
willow. It has been introduced, but is not found to be quite 
hardy. 

Arbor Vitae {Thuja occidentalis), a native of North Ame- 
rica, and T. orientaLis of China, are with us well known orna- 
mental low bushy trees, and with other species in their 
respective countries form gigantic trees, such as Lihocedrus 
chilensis and L. tetragona, fine timber trees, natives of Chili, 
and represented in New Zealand by L. Doniana. These 
have been introduced to this country, but are not suffi- 
ciently hardy to live in the open air. 

Sandarach (CalUtris quadrivalvis^ also known as Thuja 
articulata). A small tree, native of Algeria and other parts 
of North Africa. It seldom exceeds the height of thirty feet, 
and has hard dark-coloured fragrant wood that takes a fine 
polish, and is used in ornamental cabinet work, of which 
there are fine specimens to be seen in the Museum at Kew. 
It was highly prized by the Greeks and Romans, and is be- 
lieved to be the " thyine wood" mentioned in the Revela- 
tion,* which, if so, " the merchants of the earth" must have 
carried it as far as Babylon. It produces a very odoriferous 
resin, which is used for varnishing. 

Juniper (Juniperus communis). A low bushy shrub found 
growing in uncultivated heathy and rocky places throughout 
Europe. Its berries are used for flavouring gin. 

Pencil Cedar {Juniperus Bermudiand). A native of the 
island of Bermuda, forming a small tree or bush. It is gene- 
rally understood that this is the black-lead pencil wood, 



* Chap, xviii. ver. 12. 



202 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



but red cedar {Junipeims Virginiana) is also used for 
tliat purpose. The first is not hardy in this country, the 
latter is. 

Junipems Sabina, J. Phcenicia, and J. oxycedrus. Natives 
of Syria and Palestine, and as they are all resinous and 
aromatic, there can be httle doubt that one of them is the 
" cedar wood"* ordered to be used by the Israelites in their 
sacrifices in the wilderness, cedars of Lebanon being at that 
time to them unknown. The word juniper occurs three 
times in the Bible, but it does not belong to this family (see 
Broom). Juniperus Sahina is admitted into the London 
Pharmacopoeia as a medical plant. It is of a poisonous 
nature. 

The Yew Family. 

(Taxace^.) 

Shrubs, or trees, some with their branches in whorls. 
Leaves perennial, firm, acerose, subulate, linear or elliptic- 
lanceolate, smooth, with a midrib only, or with longitudinal 
veins. Flowers monoecious or dioecious. Males in spiked 
catkins ; female solitary, peduncle thick and fieshy, bearing 
a naked ovule, which becomes a nut seed. (Phyllocladus and 
Salishuria are exceptions, which see.) 

This family consists of about 150 species, all widely dis- 
tributed over the temperate and warm regions. They are 
useful for timber. 

Yew {Taxus baccata). A native of the temperate regions 
of Europe and Asia. It is famed for its age and the dura- 
bility of its wood, remains having been found in the ruins of 
ancient Nineveh. It is much planted as an ornamental tree, 
and is also used in forming hedges. 

The berries are not actually poisonous, and although not 
of very agreeable taste are sometimes eaten by children ; in 
winter they form a great supply of food to the feathered 



Leviticus, chap. xiv. ver. 4. 



THE YEW FAMILY. 



203 



tribe. The branches and leaves are in a high degree poi- 
sonous to horses and horned cattle, and act on man like 
Digitalis in arresting the action of the heart. The Irish 
Yew is a variety. 

Yacca (Podoccirpus Furdieana and P. coriacea). Large trees 
natives of Jamaica. They afford excellent hard timber. 

Podocarpus Totara. A large tree with tough wood, native 
of New Zealand ; P. spinulosa of New South Wales ; Yellow 
Wood (P. elongata) of South Africa, and P. latifolia of India, 
are large trees affording good timber. P. cupressina is a large 
tree in Penang and Java, attaining the height of 200 feet. In 
New Zealand Dacrydium Cupressinum is a beautiful and lofty 
tree, with slender pendulous branches, compactly covered 
with heath-like leaves. A beverage like spruce beer is made 
from its young shoots. 

Huon Pine (^Dacrydium FranMinii). A large and lofty 
tree, native of Tasmania. Specimens of it are found in a 
fossilized state, which are white, and being easily separated 
into pieces, show the structure of the wood very distinctly. 

Celery-leaved Pine (^Phyllocladus rhomboidalis) , also a 
native of Tasmania, and P. trichomanoides, native of New 
Zealand, are remarkable trees, having no true leaves, their 
place being supplied by broad dilated branches, which are 
more or less notched or cut, having the appearance of 
leaves. 

Maidenhair Tree (Salisburia adiantifolia) . This remark- 
able tree is a native of Japan, and was introduced more than 
a hundred years ago. It is the only deciduous tree of the 
family, and also differs in having broad two-lobed leaves with 
longitudinal forked veins, and the likeness of the leaves to 
the Maidenhair fern has led to it being called by the above 
name. This, with the yew and a species from Japan, are the 
only ones of the family that withstand the winters of this cli- 
mate. 

Allied to Pinacea is a small family called Gnetacece^ founded 
on the genus Ephedra, and the curious plant named by 
Linnaeus Gnetum Gnemon^ native of India. A small tree with 



204 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



jointed branches, and opposite net veined leaves. Ephedra 
being rush-like shrubs with small scale-like leaves. The 
flowers are terminal and unisexual. In Europe the family- 
is represented by the genus Ephedra of which there are two 
species, E. distachya and E. monostachya commonly to be 
seen in botanic gardens. About 20 species are known of this 
family. 

They have no special qualities except in their native loca- 
lities, where the seeds of some are eaten. 

The rush-like stems of Ephedra present a strong contrast 
to a plant of recent discovery associated with them, named 
Welwitschia mirahiUs. This plant consists of a hard woody 
obconical mass, in old plants not rising more than a foot 
above the ground, of nearly a circular form, and according to 
age, varying in diameter from a few inches to 5 or 6 feet, hav- 
ing a long tapering taproot, penetrating deeply into the earth. 
Its surface is nearly flat, rough, and cracked and depressed 
towards the centre, seemingly as it were divided in two by 
a furrow. Round the margin is yearly produced several 
forked flowerstalks rising about a foot in height, bearing 
round or four sided cones about an inch or more in diameter 
at the base. The above is sufficient to show this as being a 
remarkable plant, but it is still more so by its two seed leaves 
being permanent, increasing in length and breadth with the 
age of the plant ; they are of leathery texture and in old 
plants attain the length of 5 or 6 feet, with the breadth of a 
foot or more, their apex being torn or divided, and lie nearly 
flat on the ground in opposite directions ; their original axis 
or point of development being overgrown above and below 
by the continual enlargement of the trunk, giving the appear- 
ance of the leaves being artificially inserted in two slits which 
extend nearly half way round, almost meeting each other. This 
plant was first discovered by Dr. Welwitsch, growing in stony 
sandy plains on the plateau of Benguela in Africa, and in 
similar situations by other parties in Damara-land. It is 
difficult to determine the age of these plants, the largest, which 



THE BEEFWOOD FAMILY. 



205 



have the appearance of flat tables lying on the ground, may 
be presumed as not being less than five hundred years old. 
Several specimens are to be seen in the museum at Kew. 

In connexion with Gnetacece^ I place the family Casuarineoe, 
which consists of a dozen or more species of slender trees or 
bushy shrubs ; in general character and aspect resembling 
Conifers ; agreeing with Gnetacese in their branches, being- 
jointed and leafless as in Ephedra^ but differing in the im- 
portant character of their seeds being furnished with a true 
skin or coat, which has hitherto separated Casuarinece^ arti- 
ficially, from Conifercd ; but if the recent observations made 
by a French botanist are admitted to be correct, which are 
to the effect that the seeds of Coniferce are not naked ovules ; 
consequently the distinction between naked and coated seeds 
ceases to be valued, and Casuarinece thus becomes naturally 
allied with ConifercB. 

In Lindley's "Vegetable Kingdom" CofSMarmecp is placed in 
alliance with the birch, willow, plane, and oak families, with 
which it agrees in its male flowers being produced in aments ; 
but its slender pointed and naked branches impart to it an 
aspect quite alien to these families. 

The Beefwood Family. 

(Casuarinace^.) 

Leafless trees, generally with slender cord-like, pendulous 
branches, which are striated, with sheathing joints, having 
much resemblance to the genus Equisetum (weedy plants 
called Horse-tails). Flowers inconspicuous. Male flowers 
in spikes or catkins. Female flowers in compact heads, be- 
coming a woody cone with many cells, each containing a 
small- winged nut-fruit, which, by ordinary observers, is 
called the seed. On immersion in water, and viewed in 
the microscope, it is seen to be densely covered with beautiful 
spiral vessels. 

About twenty species constitute this family, all belonging 



206 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



to the genus Casuarina, chiefly natives of Australia, where 
they have the name of " She Oaks," and on account of the 
red and streaked appearance of their wood, also that of 
Beefwood. Their sombre and drooping habit has caused 
them to become favourites for ornamental trees in Australia, 
being like weeping willows. C. equisetifolia is a native of 
the sea-shores of the Indian Archipelago and South Sea 
Islands, and is used for many purposes in the different 
localities. Its hardness has obtained for it the name of Iron- 
wood. The bark furnishes a dye, and the burnt ashes is 
made into soap. It has a smooth bark, and even in the oldest 
parts of the stem shows the ringed joints, while in C. torulosa 
the stem is rough, with projecting corky bark divided by 
deep furrows. Plants of it are cultivated in this country as 
curiosities, and several old specimens at Kew have attained 
the height of twenty feet. 

CLASS v.— RHIZOGENS. 

Fleshy, fungus-like, leafless parasites, growing on 
roots, trailing stems, or branches of trees. Flowers in- 
complete (consisting of calyx only), unisexual or bi- 
sexual, solitary, conspicuous, and composing the whole 
plant; or inconspicuous and numerous in heads or 
spikes, produced from a fleshy, thallus-like rhizome. 
Stamens few or many. Seeds small, chiefly microscopic, 
some like spores of Cryptogams ; their mode of germi- 
nation unknown. 

This singular class of plants consists of about 50 
species, all widely distributed throughout the tropical 
and sub-tropical regions of both hemispheres, their 
southern limit being New Zealand, and their northern 
the European coasts of the Mediterranean. The general 
appearance and foetid odour of many of them originally 
led to the supposition that they were related to fungi. 



Pi . 9 




THE VINE RAPE FAMILY. 



207 



but their flower having been found to contain stamens 
and pistils, ranks them with flowering plants. Dr. 
Lindley considered them to be sufficiently characteristic 
to constitute a distinct class (Rhizogens). Since then 
the whole has been carefully investigated, and their 
affinities defined by Dr. Hooker; and admitting the 
positions to which he assigns them to be botanically 
correct, it is, nevertheless, unnatural so far as regards 
the general character of the families with which they are 
associated. This being the case, and considering that 
little is known of the true nature of their seeds, and 
nothing of their germination, I therefore deem it best 
for the purpose of this work to retain them in Dr. Lind- 
ley^s Class Rhizogens, and which I place between Gym- 
nogens and Exogens. 

The Vine Hape Family. 

(RAFFLESIACEiE.) 

Plant a flower only, sessile or nearly so ; consisting of a 
tubular, bell-shaped, or spreading monophyllous, 3 — 4 or 5- 
lobed, fleshy calyx ; without, or with a central corona, which 
forms a cup. Stamens numerous, free or monadelphous. 
Ovary with many placentge, bearing numerous ovules. Seeds 
microscopic. 

It is now fifty years since a great sensation was caused in 
the botanical world, by the discovery in the Island of 
Sumatra, of one of the most remarkable productions of the 
vegetable kingdom, now known by the name of Raffiesia 
Arnoldi. It was found growing on a prostrate stem of a 
species of Cissus, and from its size, fleshy consistence, and 
offensive odour gave the idea of it being a fungus. It con- 
sisted of 5 fleshy lobes or petals, measuring 1 yard across, 
being of a spotted or mottled red colour, the centre forming 
a circular cup-like dish, capable of holding twelve pints of 



208 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



water, the whole weighing 15 lbs. On its arrival in England 
it was fully described by the late celebrated botanist, Mr. 
Robert Brown, to be a true flower having stamens in one 
plant and pistils in another. When young, and before ex- 
pansion, it is very similar to a firm red cabbage. One or 
two other species have since been discovered, but of much 
smaller size. 

About 20 species of this family are enumerated, one of 
the most remarkable being Hydnora africana, a native of 
South Africa, Avhich grows on the roots of JEuphorbia. It con- 
sists of a tubular flower from 4 to 6 inches long, and may be 
compared to the socket of a candlestick, but 3-lobed. The 
outside is of dull brown, and inside of rosy red colour, but 
possessing an offensive smell like putrid meat. It is, how- 
ever, said to be eaten by the natives. A plant of it flowered 
at Kew in 1826. 

In tropical America the family is represented by the 
genus Apoclanthes, the flower is urceolate or bell-shaped, in 
size and appearance much resembling the flower of Asarum 
europceum ; they grow on the branches of trees, and have 
been mistaken for the flowers of the trees. 

The Cistus Rape Family. 

(Cytinace^.) 

Plants consisting of a simple pale coloured, somewhat 
fleshy flower stem, from 6 inches to a foot in height, furnished 
with bractffiform scales in place of leaves, the upper portion 
being floriferous. Flowers unisexual. 

About half a dozen species constitute this family, which is 
represented in Europe by Cytinus Hypocistus^ found growing 
on the roots of different species of Cistus in the countries 
of the Mediterranean. Their general appearance is that of 
broom rapes, but they are distinguished by their incomplete 
and unisexual flowers. 



209 



The Tree Rape Family. 

(BALANOPHORACEiE.)* 

Rhizocorms, tliick and fleshy (fungus -like), producing erect 
stems bearing compact, round, oblong heads or spikes, with 
numerous inconspicuous flowers enclosed in imbricate bracts. 

This family consists of about 30 known species, arranged 
under fourteen genera. They are widely distributed, two 
being found in New Zealand, and one in the south of Europe, 
such being their extent in latitude. 

Cynomorium coccineum, better known as Fungus Melitensis^ 
a native of Malta, and also found in Northern Africa, the 
Canary islands, and Syria. It consists of a fleshy flower- 
stem about a foot in height, of a red colour. It was origi- 
nally much valued for its medical virtues, and at Malta, 
when it first became known, it was specially guarded by a 
military sentinel, and special persons appointed to collect it. 
In some parts, as the Island of Lancerrotta, it is eaten by the 
natives, and as it grows on the roots of Spartium mono- 
spermum (the juniper of Scripture), may explain the passage 
in Job,f "juniper roots for their meat," 

Sarcophyte sanguinea. A native of South Africa ; it grows 
on the roots of Ekehergia Capensis, and has an offensive smell 
like rotten fish. 

Phyllocoryne (^Cynomorium) Jamaicensis. A native of 
Jamaica, where it is known by the name of "John Crow's 
Nose." In the Himalaya the natives convert the hard knots 
of the species that grows on the maple into drinking-cups. 



* Dr. Hooker places EafBesiacese and Cytinacese after the ament 
(catkin) flowering families, and Balanophorese in the Evening Prim- 
rose Family Alliance. 

t Chap. XXX. ver. 4. 



210 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



CLASS VI.— EXOGENS. 

Embryo with two cotyledons. Leaves with netted 
veins. Stems undefined or rudimentary only, or defined 
and increasing in height and girth by the annual growth 
of neio ivood to the exterior side of the preceding, en- 
closed in true bark {fig. IS, a, b, c). 



Fig. 14. 




a. Seed germinating ; b. Vertical and transverse section 
of stem ; c. leaf showing the netted veins. 



This class contains the greatest portion of the Vege- 
table Kingdom, and is readily known by the leaves 
being net-veined. It comprehends all the trees and 
shrubs seen in the open air in this country, as well as 
many herbaceous plants. The principal divisional cha- 
racters of this class are derived from the flowers being 
complete or incomplete, the corolla monopetalous or 
polypetalous, and ovary inferior or superior, the primary 
divisions being — 

1. Achlamyds. — Flowers generally unisexual, desti- 
tute of calyx and corolla ; their absence being repre- 



THE WILLOW FAMILY. 



211 



sented by scales, bracts, or involucre, which are in some 
highly coloured. 

2. Monochlamyds. — Flowers unisexual or bisexual, 
furnished with a calyx which is often highly coloured, 
like a corolla; often small or rudimentary. 

3. Dichlamyds. — Flowers generally bisexual, with a 
calyx and corolla ; the latter sometimes suppressed or 
small and rudimentary. 

These characters are common to the greater number 
of species of each division, but there are many excep- 
tions, especially in dichlamyds, many having unisexual 
flowers. 

Division I. — Aehlamyds (character as above) . 

THE WILLOW AND BIRCH ALLIANCE. 

The male flowers in this and the following alliance being 
produced in Aments, are therefore generally known by the name 
of AmentacecB. Their leaves are simple, entire or variously 
lobed ; the Walnut family is, however, an exception, the leaves 
being winged, and with the branches possess a resinous fra- 
grance, which with the special character of the fruit, serves 
to give this family a claim of relationship with the Terebinth 
alliance, their only connexion with the present being their 
incomplete flowers, and the males being in true Aments. 

The Willow Family. 

Salicace^. 

Trees or shrubs, some creeping on the ground. Leaves 
deciduous, alternate, simple, rarely serrated. Flowers monoe- 
cious or dioecious, males in catkins. Stamens free or mona- 
delphous ; female (ovary) solitary, 1 -celled, becoming a two 
valved fruit containing many feathery seeds. 

This family is represented by about 1 70 species belonging 
P 2 



212 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



to the genera Salix and Populus, all being natives of the north- 
ern hemisphere, chiefly in temperate regions, and extending 
to the limits of vegetable life in the Polar regions ; Salix 
herhacea, a small creeping plant, being found on the shores of 
Baffin's Bay. They contain tannin, and a principle like 
" Quinine" called " Salicine." 

Osier (Salix viminalis). This plant affords the Osier 
Willows used for basket making, and although much culti- 
vated in this country, the supply is not sufficient, large quan- 
tities being yearly imported from Holland. 

Bitter Willow (Salix purpurea). An osier extensively 
grown in some places ; it is remarkably bitter, even to that 
extent that it escapes the ravages of rabbits. 

Sallow (Salix caprea). This with several other species 
are known by the name of sallows. Their rods are used for 
many purposes ; for basket making they are cut at one year's 
growth, but for making hoops they require to be two or three 
years old. 

White Willow (Salix alba), also called the Huntingdon 
Willow. This species and Salix Russelliana are large trees 
affording useful timber for many purposes, the wood being 
light and firm. Cricket bats are made of it. 

Weeping Willow (Salix hahylonica). This, as the name 
implies, is a native of the country about Babylon ; where, as 
the following lines show, willow trees flourished 2500 years 
ago. " By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down, yea, we 
wept, when we remembered Zion. We hanged our harps 
upon the willows in the midst thereof."* 

It is not known if at that period the branches of the trees 
were naturally pendulous, or as some fancy, they became pen- 
dulous with the weight of the harps, from which sprung the 
weeping willow. 

It was introduced to this country about the end of the 
seventeenth century, the original tree being long famed as 
growing in Pope's garden at Twickenham. On account of a 



* Psalm cxxxvii. vers. 1 and 2. 



THE BIRCH FAMILY. 



213 



weeping willow growing over Napoleon's grave at St. Helena, 
and a twig from it having been received at Kew in 1825, it 
was thus brought into special notice, crowds of people coming 
to Kew to see it, French visitors even paying reverence to it. 
This twig, in 1867 had attained the height of 40 feet, when 
it was cut down. 

Willows are frequently mentioned in the Bible. They 
were in especial request at the Feast of Tabernacles. 

S. caprea is well known as the goat willow, growing in 
hedges and road sides. It has large yellow catkins, and as it 
is generally in flower about Palm Sunday, it is by many 
people gathered and worn as an emblem of that day, and is 
known by the name of " Palm." 

The species of willows are very variable, but their distinc- 
tions are not well determined; about 38 are described by some 
botanists as natives of Britain. 

White Poplar (Populus alba), Grey Poplar (P. canes- 
cens), natives of Europe, P. monolifera and allied species 
of North America, are large and fast growing trees. Poplar 
timber being light and white is more or less used for many 
purposes ; that of the grey poplar is used by millwrights, also 
for the handles of brooms and mops, and for making cricket 
bats. 

Lombardy Poplar {Populus fastigiatd). This erect pyra- 
midal tree is well known in the neighbourhood of London: It 
abounds in Italy, but is believed to be a native of the moun- 
tains of Western and Northern Asia. 

Aspen {Populus tremula). The trembling poplar is a na- 
tive of Britain, and is a fast growing tree, the character of 
the family being remarkably shown by the continual twirling 
and rustling of the leaves in this species. 

The Birch Family. 

(Betulace^). 

Trees or shrubs, with entire or lobed leaves having stipules. 
Flowers in catkins, monoecious, the females combined forming 



214 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



a small cone of deciduous or permanent scales containing thin 
seed-like fruit. 

About 40 species constitute this family, the greater number 
being natives of the temperate regions of the Northern Hemi- 
sphere, where, with the poplar, willow, and white spruce, 
they extend to the limit of tree life, and are also sparingly 
found in high southern latitudes. 

Birch {Betula alba). The white birch is a well known 
graceful tree grown throughout the whole of Europe ; in 
bleak rocky situations it assumes the habit of a shrub. 
Its wood and bark are used for many domestic purposes ; in 
Lapland bread is made from the bark, in Eussia an oil is 
extracted from it and used in the preparation of Russian 
leather, and imparts the well-known scent to it. Its sap flows 
freely in the spring, and as it contains a quantity of sugar it 
is fermented and forms a pleasant wine called birch wine. 

Paper Birch (^Betula papyracea). A native of North 
America. It has a very thick bark, which is taken off in 
large sheets, and by uniting them canoes are made of it — 
some large enough to carry about a dozen people. It is also 
made into shoe soles and domestic utensils. 

Black Birch {Betula nigra). Also a native of North 
America. Its timber is tolerably hard, and is used for many 
purposes. 

Alder {Alnus glutinosa). A small tree common in this 
country and throughout Europe. It has soft wood, which 
soon decays, but is of great durability when placed under 
ground or in water. In some places it is largely grown for 
making charcoal, which is used in the preparation of inferior 
kinds of gunpowder. Bowls and other domestic utensils are 
made of the wood. 

The Candleberry Myrtle Family. 

(Myricace^.) 

A small family consisting of about forty species of shrubs, 
scarcely attaining a height sufficient to be called trees, having 



THE PLANE TREE FAMILY. 



215 



simple alternate leaves, generally of a resinous nature. The 
flowers are small and inconspicuous, producing a berried 
drupe coated with a waxy secretion affording an excellent 
wax, which is extensively collected from the different species 
in the countries where they grow, and used for making 
candles. They are natives of North and South America, the 
Cape of Good Hope, and India. The Sweet Gale Bog Myrtle 
or Candleberry Myrtle {Myrica Gale) is a well known fra- 
grant shrub, growing in boggy places in this country. My- 
rica Nagi^ a native of Japan, bears a fruit similar to that of 
the strawberry tree, known by the name of Yangmce. The 
plant has lately been introduced to this country. 

The Liquidambar Family. 

(Altingiace^.) 

Deciduous trees with lobed glandular toothed leaves fur- 
nished with stipules. Flowers in catkins. Fruits united, 
forming a cone of hard scales, containing 2-celled, 2-lobed 
capsules, with winged seeds. 

This small family is represented by not more than three 
known species. Liquidamhar Styracijlua, a moderate-sized 
tree, native of North America, and L. orientale, often called 
L. imberbe, a native of Syria and southern parts of Eastern 
Europe. Both yield the gum storax of commerce, the chief 
supply coming from ports in the Mediterranean. L. Altingia, 
native of the Malayan Archipelago, also yields liquid storax. 

The Plane Tree Family. 

(Platanace^.) 

Large trees with lobed palmate deciduous leaves, furnished 
with sheathing stipules. Flowers in bisexual catkins. Fruits 
united in globose, pendulous heads, consisting of a mass of 
woolly scales, in which the small one-seeded nut fruits are 
imbedded. 



216 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



A small family consisting of about 5 species, natives of 
Syria, Himalaya, and North America. 

Eastern Plane (Platanus orientalis). A noble tree attain- 
ing the height of from 60 to 80 feet, and when standing 
singly has wide- spreading branches, being well known in 
parks and gardens in this country as a highly ornamental 
tree. 

P. acerifolia^ believed to be a distinct species, is much 
grown about London as the Oriental Plane ; it differs in its 
leaves, not being so deeply cut, and it is less disposed (as in 
the true plane) to branch horizontally. 

It is conspicuous in the vicinity of Mount Lebanon, one 
near Damascus measuring 40 feet in circumference. 

Western Plane [Platanus occidentalis). A tree attaining a 
large size, native of North America. In this country it is 
often injured by the spring frosts, and about the year 1811 
many trees of it were killed in Scotland and in England. 

P. racemosa^ a native of California, P. Lincleniana and 
P. Mexicana^ of Mexico, are said to be distinct species. 

Plane tree wood is much prized by cabinet-makers, as it 
takes a fine polish. 

THE HAZEL NUT AND OAK ALLIANCE. 
The Oak Family. 

(CUPULIFEE^.) 

Large trees or shrubs, with alternate simple or lobed 
leaves, furnished with stipules. Flowers generally in cat- 
kins, monoecious, or dioecious. Fruit a 1 -celled hard-shelled 
nut, single in a cup, or several together in a valved involucre, 
which is sometimes winged. 

This family consists of about 330 species, of which about 
280 belong to the genus Quercus, the greater portion of that 
number forming extensive forests throughout the Northern, 
but less abundant in the Southern hemisphere. 

Evergreen Beech — Fagus betuloides and F. Forsteri — are 



THE OAK FAMILY. 



217 



natives of Terra del Fuego, forming large trees. Fagus 
fusca of New Zealand, and F. Cunninghamii of Tasmania, are 
also large trees. 

Plants of these are grown at Kew, but, with the exception 
of F. betuloides, are not hardy, and even it, after standing 
the winters of twenty years, and attaining the height of 8 
feet, was destroyed by frost in January, 1867. 

British Oak {Quercus sessiUJlora and Q. pedunculata). Bo- 
tanists do not agree as to whether the trees bearing these 
names are distinct species or varieties only. They are, how- 
ever, found to differ in the quality of the timber,' and in the 
acorns of the first being without a footstalk, while in the 
second they hang loose. Both are natives of this country, 
and throughout middle and northern Europe. The oak was 
venerated by the Druids, and in ancient parks some trees 
have attained a great size and age. The principal use of oak 
timber is for ship-building. The wood of Q. sessiliflora is 
the heaviest and toughest; that of Q. pedunculata being 
like chestnut, is much used by cabinetmakers for orna- 
mental work. Oak bark is used for tanning leather, and of 
all the substances known for that purpose that can be had in 
quantity, British oak bark is found to be the best ; but the 
home supply falls far short of the demand, large quantities 
being imported from the Continent. It is also of great value 
in the preparation of dyes. The spent bark of tan-works is 
of little value as manure ; it ferments and maintains heat a 
long time, and on that account is used in hot-houses, chiefly 
for the cultivation of pine-apples. 

Turkey Oak {Quercus cerris). A large and handsome 
tree, generally with spreading branches, native of the South 
of Europe, and was introduced to this country about one 
hundred and twenty years ago. Its wood is much used in 
turning and cabinet work. 

Cork Tree {Quercus Suher). A common tree throughout 
all the southern parts of Europe. It has a thick bark, from 
which corks and bungs are made, large quantities of it being 
imported from Spain. 



218 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Kermes or Holm Oak (Quercus coccifera). A small ever- 
green tree, native of the countries bordering on the Mediter- 
ranean, also of Palestine. A bug-like insect {Coccus Ilicis), 
infests the trees, covering them with a flocky matter similar 
to the apple-tree blight. The insect is extensively collected, 
and yields a scarlet dye nearly equal to cochineal, and is the 

scarlet"* mentioned in Scripture. 

Oak Grails (Quercus infectorid). A tree, native of the 
Levant. It produces the best galls of commerce, which are 
used in the manufacture of ink, and for dyeing purposes. 
They are an extraneous production caused by the puncture 
of an insect, a species of Cynips^ laymg its eggs on the leaves 
and twiggy branches of the tree, causing an unnatural growth 
that becomes a gall and contains the pupa of the future in- 
sect. They are found abundant on oak trees in this country, 
well known as oak apples, but not of the quality to be use- 
ful; they are injurious to the trees. 

Valonia (Quercus ySgilops). Also a native of the shores 
of the Mediterranean and Levant, from whence large quan- 
tities of acorn cups are imported for tanning and dyeing. 

Belotes (^Quercus Ballota). Native of the South of Europe. 
In Spain and opposite parts of the African coast it grows 
abundantly, and the acorns are used for food. 

It is abundant in Palestine, forming a tree from 20 to 30 
feet high, and 3 to 7 feet in girth, having stout limbs, and is 
supposed to be the Oak of Bashan. The acorns are large, of 
a green colour, and remain soft when ripe ; they are sold in 
all the bazars, and are eaten either raw or boiled. Orna- 
ments are made of the cups. 

Evergreen Oak (Quercus Ilex). Also a native of the 
South of Europe, and long grown in this country, being the 
largest and handsomest of our evergreen trees ; it occasionally 
suffers in severe winters. 

Abram's Oak. Oak of Mamre (Qwercws pseudo-coccifera). 
A fine specimen of this grows on the spot where it is sup- 



* Exodus, chap. xxv. ver. 4. 



THE OAK FAMILY. 



219 



posed the tree stood under ■which Abraham entertained the 
three angels,* but what that tree was cannot be ascer- 
tained. It is believed that if any person cuts or maims it, 
he would lose his first-born son. This oak is of moderate 
height, having a trunk 23 feet in girth, and 90 feet 
spread of branches, and although it has the appearance of 
being a very old tree, yet it could scarcely have been in ex- 
istence in the time of Abraham. In the winter of 1856-7, 
it suffered the loss of a large limb, which was broken off by 
a heavy fall of snow. 

Oaks abound from the equator, north, through Central 
America, Mexico, and northward into Canada. Several 
Mexican and other southern species have been introduced, 
but do not prove hardy. The North American species are 
large handsome trees, some being more than 100 feet in 
height. Most of them are hardy, and have been well known 
in this country for more than one hundred years, many being 
very ornamental. 

About a dozen species have been introduced from Northern 
India, but they are not sufficiently hardy to live in the open 
air in this country. Several species have also lately been 
introduced from Japan and China, but their qualities have 
not yet been ascertained, 

A kind of silkworm feeds upon the leaves of Quercus 
mongolica and Q. dentata, natives of Northern China, where 
extensive tracts of hill country are covered with them, and 
which are species scarcely differing from the common oak. 

Beech {Fagus sylvatica). A well known European tree, 
also found in Western Asia. Its hard wood is used for chair 
making, and for many other domestic purposes, and an 
oil is expressed from the nuts. Purple beech is only a 
variety. 

Chestnut (Castaneavesca). The Sweet or Spanish Chestnut 
is a native of temperate Western Asia, and the east throughout 
the range of the Himalayas. It has been known from the 



* Genesis, chap, xviii. vers. 4 and 5. 



220 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



earliest period of history, and the name occurs in two places 
in the Bible.* Doubts are however entertained by com- 
mentators as to whether the tree there spoken of is the same 
as the one now known as Chestnut, some supposing the 
Plane tree (^Platanus orientalis) is meant. It is said to have 
been first brought to Europe by the Greeks, from Sardis in 
Asia Minor, at least five hundred years before the Christian 
Era, and Theophrastus writing two hundred years after, 
speaks of Mount Olympus being covered with Chestnut trees. 
From thence it was introduced to Italy, and afterwards 
gradually spread throughout Southern and Middle Europe, 
and is believed to have been introduced to this country by 
the Romans, and was long thought to be a native, on account 
of the roof of Westminster Hall and other ancient buildings 
being supposed to be chestnut wood. But it has been proved 
that the timber used is not chestnut, but an inferior sort of 
oak, called Denmark Oak (Quercus sessilijlora of botanists). 

The nut of the Sweet Chestnut is too well known to need 
description. It Italy and Spain it forms the principal food 
of the poorer classes, who grind it into meal. 

In this country the nuts ripen tolerably well in fine 
seasons, yet the quality and quantity is small compared to 
the importations which come chiefly from Holland and 
Belgium. 

Hazel and Filbert Nuts {Corylus avellana). A small 
bush, throwing up straight rod-like stems, growing wild in 
woods throughout this country, as also in the temperate parts 
of Europe, as well as in Western and Northern Asia. The 
specific name avellana is derived from the name of a place 
in Italy, where large quantities are grown for exportation. 
The great supply of the finest nuts comes from Spain, and 
are called Barcelona nuts. 

In this country nuts are extensively cultivated, especially 
about Maidstone, in Kent. 

Cob and filbert nuts are only varieties, the latter having a 



* Genesis, chap. xxx. ver. 37 ; Ezekiel, chap. xxxi. ver. 8. 



THE WALNUT FAMILY. 



221 



longer cup covering than the hazel. Hazel rods are largely 
used in making hoops and crates for packing merchandize 
in. In the book of Genesis, hazel, chestnut, and poplar are 
mentioned as being the rods which Jacob peeled and placed 
before the cattle.* It is, however, a matter of doubt 
whether these were the trees known by the same names in 
the present day. 

Hornbeam {Carpinus hetulus). A well known tree in 
this country, and throughout Europe. Its hard timber is 
used for many domestic purposes. 

Hop Hornbeam {Ostrya vulgaris). A handsome tree with 
a bushy head, attaining the height of about 40 or more feet. 
It is a native of the South of Europe, and is distinguished 
from the common hornbeam by the fruit catkin being 
similar to that of the hop, but it is of no use, 

A very old and handsome tree is to be seen in the grounds 
of the original Botanic Gardens at Kew. 

The Walnut Family. 

(JUGLANDACE^.) 

Large trees with alternate winged leaves of a resinous, 
aromatic odour. Male flowers in catkins; female (ovary) 
solitary. Fruit, drupe-like, formed of a thick rind contain- 
ing a hard furrowed shelled nut-seed, or cone-like, with 
numerous small bracts as in Fortunea. 

This family is represented by about 30 species, the greater 
number being natives of North America, where they form 
large forests ; also throughout northern temperate Asia from 
the Caucasus eastward. 

Walnut {Juglans regid). The walnut has long been 
known in this country. It is a native of western Asia 
throughout the range of the Himalaya eastward to China, 
and is greatly cultivated in Cashmere. 

It is supposed not to have been a native of Europe, but 



* Genesis, chap. xxx. ver. 37. 



222 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



was introduced from the east in very early times, and is now 
abundant throughout middle and southern Europe. The 
wood is valued by cabinet-makers for its beautiful veining 
and dark colour. An oil is extracted from the nuts equal to 
olive oil, which is greatly used by painters, and forms a con- 
siderable article of trade. 

The nutty part of the walnut eaten is the two seed-lobes 
or cotyledons, which are crumpled up in the shell. Although 
a considerable quantity of walnuts are produced in this 
country, they nevertheless fall far short of the demand, large 
quantities being imported from France, Belgium, Holland, 
the Two Sicilies, and other places. 

Black Walnut {Juglans nigra). A large tree, native of 
North America. It is much valued on account of its wood, 
which is prized for making gun-stocks. 

Hickory nut {Gary a alba). A large tree of North 
America, yielding the white hickory nut, which is greatly 
eaten in the United States, and occasionally imported into 
this country. 

Picary nut {Gary a olivcBformis). A tree, native of the 
south and western States of North America, the nut of 
which is considered a great delicacy. A small quantity has 
occasionally been imported from New Orleans. 

Pterocarya caucasica. Is a large tree, native of the 
Caucasus. A plant was received at Kew about forty years 
ago, which is now a handsome spreading branched tree, 12 
feet high, with a girth of stem of 2 J feet. It differs from the 
walnut in having a winged fruit. 

Fortu7iea Chinensis. Is a curious plant of the family, 
native of China, introduced by Mr. Fortune about twenty 
years ago. A plant at Kew, 3 to 4 feet high, had the habit 
of a small tree with winged leaves, like a small-leaved ash ; 
it produced female flowers, which consist of imbricated scales, 
forming a firm cone-like catkin, each scale bearing in its 
axis a small 1-seeded 2-winged nut. 



THE BEEAD FRUIT FAMILY. 



223 



Division 2.- — Diehlamyds (page 211). 

THE BREAD FRUIT, MULBERRY, AND NETTLE 
ALLIANCE. 

The Bread Fruit Family. 

(artocarpace^.) 

Trees or shrubs with alternate, entire or lobed leaves, and 
deciduous stipules. Flowers inconspicuous, monoecious or 
dioecious ; males in compact catkins, females closely seated 
on a globose or oblong receptacle (clinanthium), which be- 
comes a fleshy mass, when perfect containing numerous 1- 
seeded nut-like fruits ; often abortive. 

This family consists entirely of tropical trees, of which 
above 50 species are enumerated. They abound in a thin 
milky juice, and possess tough fibrous bark. 

Bread Fruit [Artocarpus incisa). A tree, native of 
Otaheite, and other islands of the Pacific Ocean, attaining 
the height of 20 to 30 feet, having spreading branches and 
rough, lobed leaves. Its fruit (so called) consists of a spongy 
receptacle of a globose or oblong form, like a large melon, 
about a foot in length ; it is marked on the exterior in a 
diamonded manner, each mark indicating the place of a female 
flower. The true fruits consist of nuts imbedded in the mass, 
but are seldom produced in trees under cultivation. Bread 
fruit, with the cocoa nut and banana, composes the principal 
part of the food of the natives of the Pacific Islands. It is of 
a white and firm texture, something like wheaten bread, and 
not unpleasant to eat. The bark is very tough, and when 
beaten out forms the whitest and finest native cloth. 

The Bread Fruit tree was first brought specially into no- 
tice by the voyages of Captain Cook, and its fame as a food 
plant led the British Government to deem it worthy of being 
naturalized in the West Indies. Accordingly, in 1787, the 
ship Bounty, commanded by Captain Bligh, accompanied by 



224 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



David Nelson, a gardener (who had accompanied Captain 
Cook in his third voyage), was despatched to Otaheite to 
obtain a cargo of young trees. This being accompHshed, 
the ship sailed from Otaheite with every prospect of the 
undertaking terminating successfully ; but they had not long 
left Otaheite when a mutiny broke out on board, and the 
Captain, Nelson, and other officers, and others of the crew 
who would not join the mutineers, were put in an open boat 
and set adrift in mid-ocean, the nearest place where Euro- 
pean aid could be obtained being the Island of Timor, 3618 
miles distant, which place they reached after enduring 
great fatigue and hardship, from the effects of which 
Nelson did not recover, having died there in July, 1789. 
On Captain Bligh reaching England, he was again despatched 
on the same mission in the ship Providence^ having with him 
Christopher Smith, a gardener from Kew, this time proving 
successful ; and in 1793 Bread Fruit trees were 
flourishing in Jamaica, and other West Indian Islands, and 
soon became common in all tropical countries favourable to 
their growth.* 

Jack Yiuii^Artocarpus integrifolius). A native of the Indian 
and Malayan Archipelagos, where it is extensively grown 
for the sake of the fleshy envelope of the fruit. It is not so 
palatable to Europeans as the bread fruit ; it is about the 
size of a large vegetable marrow, often from 12 to 18 inches 
in length and 6 to 8 inches in diameter ; its nuts, which are 
the true fruits, are roasted and eaten. The whole of the 
family contains a large quantity of watery or milky juice, the 
latter being abundant in Castilloa elastica, a tree of con- 
siderable size, native of Cuba, Mexico, and other parts of 
Tropical America; the juice contains a considerable quantity 
of Caoutchouc, which is generally known in commerce by 
the name of Mexican and "West Indian Caoutchouc, which 
wiU be specially noticed under the Euphorbia family. 



* Full particulars of these voyages are recorded in the " Mutiny 
of the Bounty." 



THE BREAD FRUIT FAMILY. 



225 



Bread-nut Tree {Brosimum AUcastrum). A large tree, 
native of the West Indies. It has lance-shaped leaves, and 
fruit about the size of a plum, containing one nut- seed, which, 
when roasted, is eatable. The wood has a fine grain like 
mahogany. 

Letter-wood, Snake-wood, or Leopard-wood (Brosimum 
Auhletii). Also a large tree, native of Tropical America, and 
has been found in Trinidad. Its beautiful mottled and 
streaked wood is much valued by cabinet-makers, and is 
used for inlaying. 

Cow Tree (Galactodendron utile). This is the Palo de 
Vaca or Cow-tree, first described by Humboldt. It is a 
native of Venezuela, where it attains the height of from 80 to 
100 feet and forms large forests; it has oblong pointed leaves, 
of a rusty colour on the under side, and is strongly veined 
and firm. On incisions being made in the trunk, a copious 
flow of milky sap is obtained of a balmy flavour, which is ex- 
tensively used by the natives as a substitute for milk, and has 
been daily used by Europeans without producing any ill effects. 
With this knowledge, and impressed with Humboldt's 
comparing the trees to cows, an Englishman was led to 
entertain the project of introducing and naturalizing them in 
this country, thus conferring a great boon on the people ; 
accordingly in 1830 he arrived in England with a great 
number of trees, it was said 1000. To his philanthropic 
views he added that of profit, and expected that his trees 
would be eagerly purchased for a guinea each, but in this he 
was disappointed, for few were bought, tree-cultivators being 
aware that a forest-tree from Venezuela could only be 
grown as a curiosity in a hothouse, which circumstance had 
not been thought of by the speculator ; and further, it was 
afterwards found that his trees were not " cow- trees," but 
a species of Achras, as proved by one of the trees grown at 
Kew. 

Upas Tree (Antiaris toxicaria). A tree, native of Java, 
growing in low valleys that become filled to a certain depth 
with carbonic acid gas, which, on any person entering proves 

Q 



226 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



fatal to life. The Upas tree was blamed as being the cause 
of this. The tree is, however, not harmless, as evil effects 
have been experienced after handling the leaves and 
branches. 

Sack Tree {Antians saccidora). A large tree, native of 
Western India, having a very tough, close, fibrous bark, the 
inner portion of which is converted into sacks ; this is accom- 
plished by cutting trees in lengths the size wanted, and 
pulling the bark over the wood ; thus a complete sack is at 
once obtained. 

Antiaris Bennettii. A native of Tropical Ncav Holland, also 
the Fiji Islands. A medium sized tree with long glossy leaves. 
Fruit the size of an apricot, covered with velvety down. In 
Fiji it is planted near temples. The gum is used for poison- 
ing arrows. 

i'he MiQberry Family. 

(MOKACE^.) 

Trees or shrubs, sometimes rooting and cHmbing like ivy, 
often with thorns. Leaves alternate, rarely opposite, entire 
or lobed, generally rough and furnished with deciduous 
stipules. Flowers inconspicuous, monoecious or dioecious; 
males in spikes ; females seated on or within a globose or 
oblong fleshy receptacle, which becomes the fruit so called. 

Nearly 200 species are enumerated in this family, the 
greatest number belonging to the genus Ficus, natives of the 
tropics ; they are also represented in North America and 
Australia, in some countries forming large trees. The 
foJlowing account of one growing on a mountain in the 
centre of Trinidad has lately been received. " We carved our 
names on a gigantic ficus near the summit, with the date of 
our visit. This tree is a noble specimen ; four of us standing 
on its spurs 6 feet above the ground, could only just span it." 
In general they abound in a milky juice which in many species 
afford Caoutchouc. 

Fig {Ficus Carica). It is generally understood that the 



THE MULBERRY FAMILY. 



227 



fig is a native of Western Asia, and was in early times intro- 
duced to the islands of the Mediterranean and Southern 
Europe, where it has become indigenous and occasionally 
attains the height of a tree. The fig is not a true fruit, but 
a fleshy receptacle of a conical form, attached by the narrow 
end, the broad end or apex having a small opening like a 
pore, the true flower and seed lining the interior, which may 
be seen on opening a fig. The fertilization of the fig being 
considered peculiar, is termed caprification ; it is believed to 
be promoted by a small winged insect, called Cynips, entering 
the young fruit by the pore at its apex, and by the move- 
ments of the insect the pollen is loosened from the anthers, 
and thus comes in contact with the stigmas, as effected by 
insects in the flowers of other plants. There are many fine 
varieties cultivated. The dried figs that come to this coun- 
try form a large article of trade with Turkey, the islands of 
the Mediterranean, and part of the African coast. The first 
notice of fig trees appears in Deuteronomy, chap. viii. ver. 8. 

Sycamore Fig Tree (Ficus sycamorus). A bushy tree from 
30 to 40 feet high, forming considerable shade, having lobed 
heart-shaped leaves something like the common fig, but 
smaller. It is a native of Syria and Egypt, and has been 
called Pharaoh's fig. The fruit is small, but produced in 
great abundance, and is extensively used in Egypt for food. 
Although its wood is light and soft, it is nevertheless very 
durable, mummy coffins of ancient date having been found 
made of it. 

That the sycamore tree was common in Palestine appears 
evident from the circumstance that King Solomon made 
cedars "to be as the sycamore trees that are in the vale, for 
abundance;"* also that it grew in the neighbourhood of 
Jerusalem in the time of Christ, as we read that Zacchseus 
" climed up into a sycamore tree "| 

India-rubber Tree (Ficus elasticd). A well-known tree 
in this country, its large shining leaves causing it to be a 



* 1 Kings, chap. x. ver. 27. f St. Luke, chap. xix. ver. 4. 

Q 2 



228 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



great favourite. It is a native of the East Indies. India- 
rubber (see Caot(tchouc) is obtained from it, and its leaves are 
greatly valued for skeletonising. 

Banyan tree {Ficus indica). In India this is an immense 
spreading tree, with broad, oval, firm leaves ; it emits aerial 
roots from the branches which descend like ropes, entering 
firmly into the ground, according to age thickening and be- 
coming like pillars, the branches continuing to extend and 
cover a vast extent of ground. 

Pipel Tree {Ficus religiosa). Also a large aerial rooted 
tree which is held sacred by the Hindoos. The leaves are 
heart-shaped, terminating in a long point. 

Mulberry Tree {^Morus nigra). The common black mul- 
berry is believed to be a native of Western Asia; it was early 
introduced to Europe, its leaves being used for feeding silk- 
worms. It appears to have been introduced to this country 
more than three hundred years ago, but the climate not being 
favourable for the production of silk, it is chiefly valued for 
its fruit, which consists of a number of one-seeded ovaries 
connected together by their enlarged pulpy calyxes. 

White Mulberry {Morus alba), said to be a native of 
China, was early introduced to Europe, and has now almost 
superseded M. nigra for the feeding of silk-worms. 

The first notice of mulberry trees in Scripture is in 2nd 
Samuel, chap. v. ver. 23-24, and the first recorded use of 
silk is in Ezekiel, chap. xvi. ver. 13, but it is probable that 
the latter article was known in the time of Solomon. Silk 
now forms one of the most valuable articles of commerce 
throughout the world, the principal imports to this country 
coming from China and India. It is also largely produced in 
Western Asia and the South of Europe, especially in Italy 
and the South of France. The mulberry tree is considered 
by some to be the sycamore tree* of Scripture. 

Osage Orange (Madura aurantiaca). A native of North 
America. It forms a straggling tree which, on account of 



* St. Luke, chap. xvii. ver. 6. 



THE NETTLE FAMILY. 



229 



its strong spines, is often used as a hedge plant ; it is hardy in 
this country and forms a low shrub. The fruit (so-called) 
consists of a firm fleshy globose receptacle the size and colour 
of an orange, but is not eatable. 

Fustic {Madura tinctoria). A native of the West Indies 
and Tropical America, often forming a large tree, with small, 
entire roughish leaves. Its wood is yellow and is the Fustic 
wood extensively imported to this country for the use of dyers. 

Paper Mulberry {Broussonetia papyrifera). A small tree 
from 20 to 30 feet high, with rough, entire, or variously lobed 
leaves. It is supposed to be a native of China and Japan, 
where it is extensively cultivated for its bark, which is made 
into paper. It is also widely spread throughout the islands 
of the Pacific Ocean, where the bark is beaten out by the 
natives and made into Tapa cloth, which forms their chief 
article of dress. 

The Nettle Family. 

(Urticace^). 

Trees, shrubs, frutlets, perennial or annual herbs, often 
weedy, leaves alternate, entire or lobed, generally furnished 
with stinging hairs. Flowers inconspicuous, in heads, spikes, 
or panicle-like catkins, sometimes very long ; generally uni- 
sexual. Fruit small, generally imbedded in a fleshy calyx, 
in Boehmeria berry-like, or dry as in nettle. 

Upwards of 300 species are enumerated of this family, 
being represented throughout the temperate and warm re- 
gions of the earth. By many botanists the bread fruit and 
mulberry families were associated with the present one, and 
though their mode of flowering and fruiting is very different, 
yet botanically it is not so, and it is more their habit that 
favours their separation ; and being devoid of milky juice. 
The habit of the genus Dorstenia appears to agree best with 
the nettle, its receptacle possessing the character of the nettle, 
fig, and bread fruit, and seems to unite these families. 

Nettle (Urtica dioica). The common nettle, with many 



230 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



other species, are well known for their stinging qualities. 

Urtica urens^ an Indian plant being of dreadful renown ; it, 
however, has its equal in two species natives of Australia. 

ZT. morioides, a small tree or bush with mulberry-like leaves, 
and U. gigas a tree of New South Wales, which attains the 
height of from 70 to 80 feet, often being swollen at the base 
forming buttresses many feet in diameter. It has large heart- 
shaped leaves, the effects of which (when touched) are not 
easily forgotten, cattle coming in contact with them becom- 
ing furious. The wood of the latter is porous and even lighter 
than cork. U. photinifolia is a large much-branched tree, 
native of Moreton Bay, having elliptical shining leaves, with 
scattered irritant prickles. The three species were intro- 
duced to Kew about forty years ago. 

Grass Cloth {Boehmeria nivea). A perennial plant, native 
of China, It sends up numerous rod-like stems, 4 to 6 feet 
high, having heart-shaped leaves, silvery white on the 
under surface. It has fine fibre, which is now imported in 
considerable quantity from China and India, and woven into 
the fine linen-like cloth known as " China Grass Cloth." It 
is now extensively cultivated in the Southern United States, 
and the British Government have lately become inte- 
rested in its cultivation in the colonies favourable to its 
growth. There is, however, some difficulty in separating 
the fibre from the bark and wood, which has led the 
Government of India to offer a reward of 5000Z. for the best 
mode of overcoming the above difficulty. 

It grows freely in this country, but in severe winters is 
liable to be injured ; but it might be profitably cultivated in 
Cornwall and the western counties. The fibre called Ehea 
is supposed to be the produce of this or a closely allied 
species. 

Puya Fibre {Boehmeria Puyd), is a plant similar to the 
preceding in habit of growth, but has longer leaves. It is 
extensively cultivated in Upper India ; the fibre is used for 
making ropes and sailcloths. 

Con tray erva Root (jDorstenia Contrayerva), A frutlet 



THE HEMP FAMILY. 



231 



plant, native of tropical America, with rough heart-shaped 
leaves. The roots are imported to this country for medical 
purposes. 

The Hemp Family. 

(CANNABINACEiE,) • 

Erect or twining herbs, with angular rough stems and 
alternate-lobed leaves. Flowers in catkin-panicles, incon- 
spicuous, unisexual or bisexual. 

This family is represented by only two species, the Hemp 
and Hop. 

Hemp {Cannabis sativa). An annual plant found wild in 
northern India and the western parts of Asia, but now gene- 
rally cultivated in temperate and warm regions. It attains 
an average height of from 8 to 10 feet, but sometimes 
exceeds the latter. Its fibre is the hemp of commerce, im- 
ported to this country from many parts, the greatest supply 
being from Eussia., and the finest from Italy. 

In India the dried plant is known by the names of Gunjah 
and Bhang. Gunjah is smoked like tobacco, Bhang is mace- 
rated in water and made into a drink ; both are stimulating 
and intoxicating. 

A resin is collected from the plant, called Churras, in which 
the properties of Gunjah and Bhang are concentrated. It is col- 
lected by coolies, who run violently amongst the plants, the 
resin sticking to their bodies, or to skins with which they are 
purposely clothed. This resin when used in small quantities 
produces pleasant sensations, but if taken in excess leads to 
insanity. The seeds are used for feeding caged birds. 

Hop {Humulus Lupulus). A well known perennial plant, 
found wild in the eastern parts of Europe, and was known to 
the ancients. It is now generally cultivated throughout 
Europe, and was introduced to England about three hundred 
years ago. The female flowers consist of leafy cone-like cat- 
kins (strobili), of a light colour, which are called Hops, 
and are weU known as giving the best bitter to beer. It is 



282 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



extensively cultivated, more especially in Kent, "where the 
finest hops are produced. 

The Bunius Family. 

(Stilaginace^.) 

Trees or shrubs, with alternate entire leathery leaves and 
deciduous stipules. Flowers inconspicuous, unisexual. Fruit 
small, drupaceous. 

A small family, consisting of 20 or more species, natives 
chiefly of the East Indies and Madagascar, the principal 
being Antidesma alexiteria, A. paniculata, and Stilago Bunius. 
They are trees with laurel-like leaves which are subacid, 
and when boiled are used in India in cases of syphilis. The 
succulent fruits are eaten, and are sometimes preserved. 
The bark of Stilago Bunius is fibrous, and is used for rope- 
making. 

The Elm Family. 

(Ulmace^.) 

Trees or shrubs with alternate simple entire or serrated, 
generally rough leaves, furnished with stipules. Flowers 
small, unisexual {Celtis) or bisexual {Ulmus). Stamens gene- 
rally 4 — 5 ; Pistils 2. Fruit a thin membranous 1 or 2 
seeded samara — Ulmus — or a berry-like drupe — Celtis. 

Above 60 species are recorded of this family, natives of 
the temperate countries of the Northern Hemisphere ; they 
are chiefly valued for their timber. 

Elm {Ulmus campestris). The common elm is a well 
known tree, valued for its timber, which is used for many 
purposes, particularly for works under ground or in water. 
The Wych elm ( Ulmus montana) also aflbrds good timber, 
but does not grow to so large a size. The elm is exten- 
sively grown in this country, lives to a great age, and is 
sometimes of large dimensions. 

In consequence of U. campestris not producing perfect 



THE cock's comb FAMILY. 



233 



seeds in this country, and there being no evidence of it being 
found in a wild state, it is therefore supposed that it is not 
a native ; while U. montana seeds freely, and is abundantly 
wild in Scotland. 

American Elm {Ulmus Americana). A native of North 
America, abundant in Nova Scotia and Canada, extending to 
the Southern United States. It is a tree resembling the 
English elm, but has larger leaves ; the wood is used for the 
same purposes as the preceding, but is not so hard and is 
less durable. Its inner bark is very tough, and is used for 
weaving into seats for common chairs and the like. 

Zelkona tree (^Planera Richardi). A native of North 
America, becoming a large tree, attaining the height of 70 or 
80 feet, having much the appearance of the elm, and in the 
countries where it is abundant is used for the same purposes 
as the oak, especially for making furniture. 

Nettle Tree (Celtis australis). A tree 30 to 40 feet or 
more high, native of the South of Europe, and coast of North 
Africa. In some parts of France and Germany it is planted 
as an ornamental tree ; its wood is hard and is used for furni- 
ture making. As a genus it differs from Ulmus by having 
a small black drupe, which is delicious and wholesome, and 
is eaten in some parts. It is believed by some to be the 
Lotos of the ancients, the food of the Lotophagi. In Greece 
it is called honey-berry. There are several other species 
natives of North America, such as the huckberry [Celtis 
crassifolia) , a fine species forming large forests in some parts 
of the United States, having fruit about the size of a pea, 
which is eatable. 



THE AMARANTH, DOCK, AND MAEYEL OF 
PEEU ALLIANCE. 

The Cock^s comb Family. 

( Amaranthace m.) 
Soft stemmed fruticuls, or perennial or annual herbs, 
rarely woody. Leaves simple, alternate, or opposite and 



234 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



embracing the stem, of a soft flaccid texture. Flowers uni- 
sexual or bisexual in compact heads, spikes, or racemes ; 
calyx coloured and scariose, often with one or more coloured 
bracts, which are sometimes spiny. Fruit bladder like, or 
a berry. 

This family consists of about 500 species, all widely dis- 
tributed throughout warm and temperate climates ; they 
are of a weedy nature, their seeds vegetating freely, and 
readily become naturalized in new localities. In India one 
or more species are cultivated for their seeds, which are used 
as food ; many are considered by the natives of the different 
countries to have medical qualities. 

Cock's Comb (^Celosia cristata). An annual, native of 
India, introduced to this country three hundred years ago ; 
the typical form is a branching plant, bearing loose spikes of 
flowers. The crested head of the garden cock's comb is a 
monstrosity brought about by cultivation. 

Prince's Feather {Amaranthus hypocliondriacus), Love- 
lies-bleeding {A. caudatus), well known garden annuals, 
natives of India. A. tricolor, a native of China, valued for 
its variously coloured leaves. 

Globe Amaranth (Gomphrena glohosa). A well known 
tender annual, with purple and white flowers, native of India. 

Iresine Herhsti, a native of Brazil, has on account of its 
dark sombre foliage, come into repute as a contrast of colour 
in flower beds. 

Trichinmm, a genus of Australia, has pretty plumose spikes 
of flowers. 

The Spinach Family. 

(Chenopodiace^ .) 

Herbs, perennial or annual, fruticuls or shrubs. Stems 
generally soft (some jointed) with alternate, fleshy, entire or 
lobed leaves. Flowers in spikes, compact racemes, or panicles, 
inconspicuous, unisexual or bisexual. Fruit membranous, dry 
and rough, or a fleshy berry, one seeded. 



THE SPINACH FAMILY. 



235 



Above 500 species are recorded as belonging to this wide- 
spread weedy family, chiefly found throughout the temperate 
regions of the Northern Hemisphere, some growing in salt 
marshes and on sandy shores. The whole are wholesome. 

Spinach {Spinacia oleracea). The native country of the 
garden spinach is not well ascertained, but is supposed to be 
Western Asia ; it has been known in this country for at least 
three hundred years. There are two kinds, one with smooth 
and the other with prickly seeds. Both are cultivated and 
used as a vegetable. 

English Mercury {Chenopodium Bonus Henncus), and other 
species of the genus, are sometimes used in this country as 
spinach. 

Australian Spinach (Chenopodium auricomum). A native 
of the interior of Australia. It is allied to C. hyhridum, a 
weedy plant of this country. It has lately come into use 
as a substitute for spinach. 

Quinoa [Chenopodium Quinoa). An annual plant growing 
to the height of from 4 to 6 feet, producing dense erect com- 
pound panicles of flowers. It is a native of Peru, and is 
much cultivated in Chili and other parts of Western America 
for its seeds, which form a great article of food, and are con- 
sidered by the miners and others employed in laborious work 
as very strengthening. Before the conquest of Peru by the 
Spaniards, it was the principal meal food of the Peruvians. 
In this country it is cultivated for feeding fowls, and its 
leaves are used as a vegetable. In the United States an oil 
is obtained from the seeds of C. anthelminticum. 

Mountain Spinach, or Garden Orache (A triplex hortensis) 
A native of Eastern Europe. It is a hardy annual plant, 
growing 2 to 3 feet high, having large hastate leaves, varying 
from light green to dark red, which are sometimes used as 
spinach. They seed freely, the red leaved kind becoming a 
weed in some gardens. 

Orache or Sea Purslane (Atrij^lex Halimus). A low shrub 
with succulent leaves, native of the South of Europe and 
Western Asia, growing in desert places. It is supposed to 



236 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



be the plant spoken of in the book of Job* as Mal- 
lows." A. portulacoides is a shrubby species similar to 
the last, and abundant on the southern coasts of this 
country. 

Strawberry Elite {Blitum capitatum and B. virgatum). 
Prostrate annual plants, natives of the South of Europe. 
They are cultivated for their leaves, which are sometimes 
used as spinach, and like the former, become weeds in gardens, 
but are interesting on account of their strawberry-like fruit, 
which is composed of a union of fleshy calyxes. 

Beet [Beta vulgaris). The red beet is said to be a native 
of France ; it was introduced to this country about two 
hundred years ago. Its large succulent roots are a w^ell 
known culinary vegetable, either cooked or as a pickle. 

Mangel Wurzel. This is understood to be the cultivated 
state of Beta maritima, a wild plant growing on the sea- 
shores of this country, and now extensively cultivated for 
feeding cattle. During the war between Great Britain and 
France, sugar became scarce in the latter country, and it 
being found that beet contained a quantity oi' saccharine 
matter, the Emperor Napoleon encouraged its cultivation in 
order to obtain sugar from it, and which has been carried 
on more or less in France, as well as in Germany, ever since 
that period. It has also become an article of manufacture 
in this country, where it is largely grown for that purpose. 

When refined, it has the appearance of cane sugar, but is 
distinguished by the fracture not being so bright and the 
crystals less sparkling than in cane sugar. By fermentation 
and distillation of the juice, a large quantity of proof spirit 
is obtained, which is said to be used in the manufacture of a 
sherry wine, the refuse yielding potash. In Italy, both the 
red and white beet are sold in the street hot from the oven, 
and are eaten with bread, butter, and salt, affording a satis- 
factory meal to many people. 

Glasswort (Salicornia herbacea). A succulent jointed- 



* Chap. XXX. ver. 4. 



THE SPINACH FAMILY. 



237 



stemmed plant, native of the muddy sea-shores of this coimtry. 
It grows to the height of six or more inches ; the stems make 
a very good pickle. 

Salsola Kali and S. Soda, are branching annual plants, 
having succulent almost leafless stems, growing to the height 
of 1 or 2 feet, and found abundantly on the sandy sea-shores 
of the temperate and warm countries of the Northern Hemi- 
sphere, abounding on the shores of the Mediterranean, Canary 
Islands, &c. By burning, a soda is obtained, which at one 
time Avas largely imported under the name of Barilla, and 
used for making soap and glass, but since the production 
of soda from common salt the imports have not been so 
large. 

Shrubby Saltwort {Salsola fruticosa). An erect branch- 
ing plant, 2 to 3 feet high, having small semicylindrical 
leaves not more than half an inch in length. It is common 
on the shores in warm parts of Europe, Northern Africa, 
and Western Asia ; it is found in this country but rarely, in 
some parts of the eastern and southern shores only. In the 
South of Europe it is burned for Barilla. 

Batis maritima. A low erect succulent frutlet, with small 
opposite leaves, and inconspicuous unisexual flowers, pro- 
duced in cone-like spikes. In general habit it is similar to 
glasswort, with which some botanists consider it to be allied, 
others viewing it as the type of a special family [Batidem) 
belonging to the Spurgewort alliance. It is a native of salt 
marshes in the West India islands and coasts of tropical 
America. In some countries it is burnt for the carbonate 
of soda which it contains. In Jamaica it is used as a 
pickle. 

The genus Basella has been separated from Chenopodiaceje 
and formed into the type of a distinct family (Basellacefe), 
which some botanists place in alliance with fig marigolds. 
It consists of about twelve species of climbing succulent fru- 
ticuls, with alternate simple leaves, and succulent berried fruit. 
They are widely spread throughout the tropics, Basella 
rubra and B. alba having leaves like, and are used as 



238 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



spinacli. B. I'uhra yields a rich purple dye, but it is not 
permanent. 

Boussingaltia haselloides, a native of the Andean regions of 
South America, has strong perennial roots, and long inter- 
lacing stems which attain considerable height, and produce 
clusters of small fragrant white flowers. It grows freely in 
the open air in this country during summer, and is a very 
ornamental plant. 

The Marvel of Peru Family. 

(Nyctaginace^.) 

Trees or shrubs, sometimes with strong hooked thorns 
and climbing, generally with alternate -leaves ; or herbs, pe- 
rennial or annual, with thick jointed stems, and opposite 
leaves. Flowers solitary, or in clusters, often contained 
within a large leafy green or coloured involucre. Fruit 
bladder-like, sometimes enclosed within the persistent in- 
volucre. 

About 100 species compose this family. They are found 
widely dispersed over the tropics, the pretty genus Ahronia 
extending to North- West America. They possess no parti- 
cular properties. 

The family is represented in gardens by the Marvel of 
Peru" {Mirahilis Jalapa), which has been known in this 
country for more than two hundred and fifty years ; it is said 
to be a native of both Indies, but this must be considered 
uncertain. It has large black tuberous roots, which were at 
one time supposed to produce jalap. This, as well as M. 
longiflora, are handsome garden plants, opening their pretty 
tube-like various coloured flowers, or properly calyx, in the 
afternoon, hence called Four- o'clock-flower. 

Bougainvillcea spectahilis, B. speciosa, and B. glabra, na- 
tives of tropical America, are rude trailing or climbing 
ampelids, generally furnished with strong hooked thorns. 
They are much admired in this country for their showy 



THE BLOODBERRY FAMILY. 



239 



flowers, or rather their coloured bracts, which have a hand- 
some appearance. 

This family is remarkable in their tissues containing ra- 
phides in great quantity ; in Pisonia they lie in bundles like 
packets of needles, and so compact that their position can be 
seen with the naked eye by the irregular white markings of 
the leaves. 

The Bloodberry Family. 

(Phytolaccace^.) 

Soft-wooded sub-trees, shrubs or herbs, with alternate 
simple leaves. Flowers in spikes or panicles. Fruit a fleshy 
berry with red juice, or sometimes dry. 

About 80 species are known of this family. They are 
chiefly natives of the tropics, some species of Phytolacca ex- 
tending to temperate countries; they are generally acrid. 

Poke (^Phytolacca decandra). A strong-growing herba- 
ceous plant, 3 to 4 feet high, having bunches of dark purple 
berries, the juice of which resembles red ink. It is a native 
of the Southern United States, where the plant is used medi- 
cinally ; the young shoots on being boiled lose their acridity, 
and are then eaten as a vegetable. 

Umbra tree (Pircuma dioicd). A native of South America, 
and has now become naturalized in many warm countries, 
even in the South of Europe, where it becomes a large tree of 
from 20 to 30 feet high. It has a thick, gouty, soft-wooded 
stem ; the branches are furnished with large dark, broad 
elliptical leaves, the whole aspect of the tree having a sombre, 
dull appearance. In the hothouses of this country it soon 
attains a great height and thickness, and is a rude-growing 
plant. The juice of its berries is said to be used for 
colouring wine. 

Bloodberry {Rivina humilis). A small shrub with soft 
leaves, native of the West Indies, and is an old inhabitant in 
the hothouses of this country. It has spikes of white flowers, 
which are followed by a bunch of small red berries, the juice 
of which is like blood. 



240 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



The Garlic Shrub Family. 

(Petiveriace^.) 

Small upright-branched shrubs, with simple, alternate, 
entire leaves, sometimes dotted, and furnished with stipules. 
Flowers small, in spikes, racemes, or panicles. Fruit small, 
1 -celled, dry, wedge-shaped with a spiny apex, or a narrow- 
winged samara. 

By some botanists, this small family, consisting of about 
10 species, is considered to form a section of PhytoJaccacece, but 
on account of having a dry samar-like fruit, others separate 
them — the typical species, Petiveria alliacecBy is a small shrub, 
very common throughout the West Indies and tropical 
America. It is well known as the Garlic shrub, the whole 
of the plant having a strong odour of garhc, which is im- 
parted to beef when the plant has been eaten by cattle. In 
Jamaica it is called Guinea Hen Weed, guinea fowls being 
fond of it. 

The Buck-wheat Family. 

(POLYGONACE^.) 

Small trees, shrubs, or herbs, perennial or annual, some 
twining, generally with knotted stems. " Leaves alternate, 
simple, sheathing round the stem, sometimes with a large 
membrane. Flowers in spiked racemes, axillary or terminal, 
bisexual or unisexual. Bracts and calyx sometimes large 
and coloured. Fruit a small, generally triangular, nut. 

This family consists of about 500 species, which, with the 
exception of the tropical genus Coccoloba and Triplaris, are 
weedy plants, represented in this country by Dock, Buck- 
wheat, &c. They are Avidely dispersed over the earth, even 
extending to high northern latitudes, but rare in the Southern 
Hemisphere. 

Oxyria reniformis, a small perennial plant mth kidney- 
shaped leaves, is a native of the Arctic regions. It is re- 
markable for being found on Moimt Lebanon, and is supposed 



THE BUCKWHEAT FAMILY. 



241 



to be the only relic of the once glacial period of that 
mountain. 

Ehubarb {Rheum palmatum andE.Emodi). Perennial plants, 
natives of Russia, the range of the Himalaya and western 
China. From the latter country, large quantities of the roots 
enter Russia, from which place the best rhubarb comes to 
this country. The roots of E. Emodi find their way to 
Aleppo, thence to Constantinople, and from there to this 
country, under the name of Turkey rhuharh. There is how- 
ever, some doubt which species produces the best rhubarb, 
the Chinese and Tartars not being willing that the plant 
should be known. But the quality in a great measure de- 
pends on the collecting, drying, and transport. R. palmatum 
is much grown in this country for its roots, especially about 
Banbury. R. Rhaponticum, a native of Western Asia, is ex- 
tensively cultivated for its leafstalk, which is well known as a 
culinary vegetable, R. undulatum and R. palmatum being 
used for the same purposes, as well as made into wine and 
preserves. 

Rhubarb contains numerous crystal bodies, in botany 
called raphides, which by the aid of the microscope are 
readily seen in the fresh or cooked leafstalk, having the 
appearance of numerous needles, and said to consist of phos- 
phate of lime, and it is supposed that the medical virtue of 
rhubarb is in some way due to them, it being one of our 
best purgative medicines. 

Buckwheat or Brank {Fagopyrum esculentum). This is 
supposed to be a native of Central Asia, where it is exten- 
sively cultivated, but it has now become widely spread in 
most countries. It is largely cultivated in France, Holland, 
and the United States, for its seeds, which are ground into 
meal and made into thin cakes. In this country it is used 
for feeding pheasants. 

Polygonum Convolvulus. This is a pest in cornfields, 
twining round and destroying the crops. 

Monks Rhubarb (Rumex alpinus). This has been na- 
turalized in some parts of Scotland, and with other large 

B 



242 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



rooted species of the genus is used as a substitute for rhubarb, 
but they are of a drastic nature. 

Common Sorrel {fiumex acetosa). A native of this coun- 
try. French sorrel [R. scutatus), a native of Switzerland. 
Perennial plants, cultivated in gardens for their leaves, which 
are acid and are used as culinary herbs. 

The genus Coccoloha and Triplaris are slender almost un- 
branched trees, or large shrubs, some being twining ampelids. 
Coccoloha pubescens, " Leather Leaf, " C. macrophylla^ and 
C. rlicefolia have large rigid rhubarb-like leaves ; they are 
natives chiefly of the West Indies and tropical America. C. 
uvifera is a small tree or straggling shrub. The flowers are 
in spikes, and the calyx, when ripe, becoming fleshy, has the 
appearance of grape berries, and has been called the ''sea- 
side grape;" the bark is astringent and has been used for 
tanning leather. 

THE LAUEEL, PEOTEA, AND DAPHNE ALLIANCE. 
The Oleaster Family. 

(El^agnace^.) 

Small trees or shrubs, with opposite or alternate leaves, 
generally covered with scurf scales, of silvery white or brown 
colour. Flowers small, unisexual or bisexual, axillary, the 
males in catkin-like spikes. Fruit enclosed within the calyx, 
becoming a pulpy crustaceous 1 -seeded berry. 

This small family consists of about 30 species, all widely 
dispersed over the northern hemisphere, species of Shepherdia 
being natives of North America, and Elceagnus of the tem- 
perate parts of India, China, and Japan ; while HippophcB 
rhamnoides is widely distributed over Europe and Asia ; it 
is a] so found on the sea shores of this country, and is called 
" sea buckthorn f a fish-sauce is made from the berries, 
and in Eussia they are much esteemed and preserved through- 
out the winter. They are, however, found to contain a 
narcotic poisonous principle. 



THE SPURGE LAUREL FAMILY. 243 

Oleaster {Elceagnus angustifolius and E. orientalis, now 
considered as one species under the name of E. hortensis). A 
small stiff-branched tree, growing from 15 — 20 feet high, 
having hoary willow-like leaves and small yellow flowers 
which perfume the air for a considerable distance. It is a 
native of the South of Europe and Western Asia, forming a 
scrub in the desert. The berries are dried by the Arabs and 
made into cakes, and it is supposed to have formed part of 
the merchandize that the Ishmaelites* carried into Egypt. 
The berries are known by the name of Trebizond dates. 

BufEalo Berry (^Shepherdia argentea). A low bush, with 
pretty silvery lance^shaped leaves. It is found abundant in 
the United States and many parts of North America. The 
berries are about the size of currants, and form a considerable 
portion of the food of the Utah Indians. 

The Spurge Laurel Family. 

(Thymelaceje.) 

Shrubs or small trees, having tough fibrous bark, with 
simple, opposite, or alternate broad or heath-like leaves. 
Flowers solitary, in spikes, round heads, or umbels often con- 
tained in a leafy involucrum, which as well as the calyx is 
generally coloured and corolla-like. Stamens 2— 4— 8. Pistil 1. 
Fruit a 1 -seeded berry-like drupe or dry nut. 

A considerable family of plants consisting of 300 or more 
species, many being natives of South Africa and Australia ; 
others of tropical America. It is represented in Europe 
and India by the genus Daphne, and in North America by 
the leather-wood shrub, Dirca palustris. 

Mezereon {Daphne Mezereon). An early flowering shrub, 
said to be found wild in this country. It is a favourite in 
gardens, both for its sweet- smelling flowers and pretty ber- 
ries, which are its only recommendation, they as well 
as the whole plant being blistering, acrid, and poisonous. 



* Genesis, chap, xxxvii. ver. 25. 
R 2 



244 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Spurge Laurel {Daphne Laureola). A pretty evergreen 
shrub, with poisonous berries, native of this country. Other 
species of the genus are highly ornamental garden plants; 
D. indica and D. odora are prized in the greenhouse for 
their sweet smell. 

Bark Paper {Daphne cannabind). A tree native of Hima- 
laya, China, and Japan. By a process of manufacture the 
bark is made into paper; the sheets, when prepared, vary in 
size, the largest being about a yard square. It is remarkable 
for its toughness and durability, and is free from the attacks 
of insects. Paper is also made in India from the bark of 
Edgworthia Gardneri. 

Lace Bark {Lagetta lintearia). A small tree, native of 
Jamaica, growing on limestone rocks, and insinuating its 
roots in the fissures. It has broad somewhat roundish leaves, 
and flowers like lily of the valley, the fruit being a pulpy 
white berry. It is remarkable for its bark, which separates 
into twenty or more layers, becoming like lace, and was at 
one time used in Jamaica for many domestic purposes, 
such as net-caps, bonnets, veils, ruffles, &c. ; it is said that 
Charles II. had a cravat made of it. With care it will bear 
washing. During the time of slavery, whips and thongs were 
made of it. 

Wickstrcemia Indica. A large tree-like shrub, common on 
the sea shores of tropical Eastern Australia, Fiji, Society and 
other Polynesian islands. The bark is extremely tough, and 
is used by the natives for making lines, ropes, and fishing-nets. 

Different species of Pimelea, natives of Australia and New 
Zealand, and Gnidia, Lachncea^ and Fasserina, natives of the 
Cape of Good Hope, have long been cultivated in the green- 
houses of this country as ornamental plants. 

The Wood Aloe Family. 

(Aquilariace.^.) 

Trees with smooth bark, opposite, alternate, simple leaves 
and inconspicuous flowers. About 10 species represent 



THE NUTMEG FAMILY. 



245 



this family, all natives of tropical Asia, the most im- 
portant being Aquilaria Agallocha, a tall tree, having alter- 
nate lance-shaped leaves, native of India, Java, and other 
islands, where it is called Aquila or Eagle-wood. The wood 
is fragrant, and contains a resinous oil, which is burnt as a 
perfume in temples. It is supposed to be the aloes, wood 
aloes, and lign aloes mentioned in several parts of the 
Bible in conjunction with myrrh, cinnamon, and other sweet- 
smelling plants ; if so, this tree not being a native of Syria, 
the wood must have been received through commerce with 
the East ; but the passage " As gardens by the river's side, 
as the trees of lign aloes which the Lord had planted,"* 
leads to the supposition that it was a tree native of some part 
of "Western Asia, thus leaving doubts as to the true aloes of 
the Bible. 

The Nutmeg Family. 

(Myristicace^e.) 

Trees with alternate simple leaves. Flowers small in 
axillary or terminal racemes, or panicles, generally uni- 
sexual. Fruit fleshy, 2-valved, containing a single nut seed 
covered with an arillus. 

Between 30 and 40 species are enumerated in this family. 
They are chiefly natives of the tropics of India and the 
Malayan Archipelago ; several species are also found in 
tropical America. 

Nutmeg (Myristica moschata). A small branching tree 
attaining the height of 20 or 30 feet ; it is extensively culti- 
vated in the Molucca and other islands of the Malayan Archi- 
pelago as well as in some parts of India. The fruit is about 
the size of a walnut, consisting of a rather thick fleshy skin, 
containing a single nut, which, on the fruit opening, is seen 
to be enveloped in a red net-like covering which is the 



* Numbers, chap. xxiv. ver, 6. 



246 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



" mace," the kernel being the nutmeg of commerce. M. fatua 
is cultivated in Brazil ; the fruit of this is longer than the 
true nutmeg, and is sold in this country under the name of 
long nutmegs. M. oioha and other species cultivated in the 
Philippines and Madagascar probably find their way to this 
country for sale. An oil is extracted from the nuts called 
oil of mace : the bark stains red. In Malacca and Penang the 
nutmeg has been extensively cultivated, but during the last 
few years the trees have been attacked with a disease which 
has destroyed whole plantations for which no remedy has yet 
been found. 

Myristica sehifera is a large tree 50 to 60 feet high, com- 
mon in the forests of Guiana, North Brazil, and Panama. By 
maceration of the nuts in water a solid oil is obtained which 
is used in candle-making. 

The Sandalwood Family. 

(Santalaceje.) 

Trees or shrubs, rarely herbs ; leaves simple, alternate, or 
nearly opposite, linear, lanceolate, ovate elliptical or small 
stipule-like, as in the herb Thesium. Flowers small in spikes 
or umbels or solitary, unisexual or bisexual. Fruit berry- 
like, consisting of a hard shell containing a hard seed. 

About 100 species constitute this family. They are widely 
distributed over both temperate and tropical regions, being 
represented in this country by the small herbaceous plant 
called toad-flax (^Thesium linophyllum\ in the East Indies and 
islands by trees, and in Australia chiefly by shrubs. Few are 
of importance medicinally or otherwise, except the valuable 
wood called sandalwood. 

Sandalwood (^Santalum album). A small tree about 25 
feet high, and seldom a foot in diameter, with nearly opposite 
oblong leaves of a light colour. It is a native of various parts 
of India, particularly Malabar and Coromandel, also Malay, 
Fiji, and many islands of the Pacific Ocean. According to the 
size and age of the tree the interior is of a dark or red colour, 



THE SANDALWOOD FAMILY. 



247 



and is the valuable part ; it is higlily fragrant. The burning 
of incense has from the earliest ages been intimately connected 
with the religious sentiments of man, being practised by 
Pagan, Jew, and Christian. In the churches of the latter 
various kinds of aromatic gum resins are used, while in Pagan 
temples sandalwood holds the highest rank, pieces of the 
wood varying in size according to circumstances, being burned 
before the images of their deities, and the millions of Brah- 
mins and Buddhists, on beholding the smoke incense curling 
heavenward, presume they have performed their religious 
duties, and that the perfume smelt by their deity will obtain 
forgiveness for sins. In Chinese temples joss sticks 
(candles), made of the sawdust of sandalwood and swines' 
dung, are kept burning before their idols. On the discovery 
of sandalwood in the Polynesian islands, shiploads were 
taken to China and to Europe, so that in many islands 
the trees have become extirpated, and the chiefs now con- 
sider a piece of sandalwood a valuable present to a visitor. 
Unfortunately the often clandestine cutting down of trees 
and the unfair dealings with the natives so irritated them 
against white men, that much bloodshed has on both sides 
been the result. A case of this kind led to the unfortunate 
murder of the celebrated missionary the Rev. Mr. Williams 
and his colleague, at the island Eromango, in the year 1839. 

Fancy articles are made of the wood, which are highly 
esteemed among the Chinese as presents. An oil is extracted 
and used as a perfume. It is supposed that there are different 
varieties, the tree in Fiji being considered as a distinct 
species under the name of aS'. Tasi^ the fruit of which resem- 
bles a black currant. The Sandwich Island tree is also con- 
sidered distinct, known under the name of S. Freycinetianum. 

Sandalwood trees have been supposed by some writers to 
be the almug and algum trees used in the building of Solo- 
mon's Temple, but their fragrance not being mentioned, and 
the known smallness of the tree, render such views proble- 
matical. 

Quandang Nut (^Fusanus acummatus). A tree attaining 



248 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



the height of 20 or 30 feet, having a drupaceous fruit, which 
is used as a preserve, and may be considered one of the few 
native fruits of Australia worthy of the name of fruit. 

Leptomeria acerha and several other species, natives of 
Australia, are broom-like plants, bearing pulpy berried fruit 
called the native currant. 

Santalaceous plants have been found difficult to cultivate 
in this country. 

The Australian Sassafras Family. 

(MONIMIACE^.) 

Evergreen aromatic trees or shrubs, with opposite, entire, 
or toothed leaves, and small inconspicuous, unisexual flowers. 
Fruit consisting of 1 or several 1 -seeded nuts, enclosed in 
the large tubular calyx. 

About 50 or more species are described as belonging to 
this family. They are chiefly natives of South America, a 
few, of the tropics of the eastern hemisphere, also of Aus- 
tralia and New Zealand. 

Tasmanian Sassafras Tree (Atherosperma moschata). A 
native of Mount "Wellington in Tasmania. It attains the 
height of from 100 to 150 feet, and a diameter of 2 J feet. Its 
aromatic bark has been used as a substitute for tea ; it yields 
a fragrant essential oil. 

Australian Sassafras Tree {Doryphora Sassafras). A 
native of New South "Wales, and equal in magnitude to 
the preceding. 

New Zealand Sasssiiras (Laurelia Novcb Zelandics). A large 
handsome tree of New Zealand, of from 100 to 150 feet in 
height, having buttresses 15 feet in diameter. Z. sempervirens, 
also a large tree similar to the last, native of Chili and Peru. 
Its fruit being aromatic, it has obtained the name of Peru- 
vian nutmeg, but is of no value. 

Boldoa fragrans. A small tree with broad entire bay- 
scented leaves, is also a native of Chili, and, with the above 
named species, is grown in the greenhouses at Kew. 



249 



The Laurel Family. 

(Laurace^.) 

Large or small (generally) evergreen trees or shrubs, 
having simple, alternate leaves, often with a gland or pore at 
their base, generally firm, and often shining. Flowers in 
panicles or umbels, or crowded spikes, inconspicuous, gene- 
rally bisexual. Fruit a drupe, sometimes berry-like. 

This family consists of nearly 500 species. They are 
widely distributed, chiefly throughout the tropical and tempe- 
rate regions of both hemispheres, extending from North 
America to New Zealand and Japan. Many are of great 
importance for their timber ; they also yield various drugs, 
all containing an aromatic principle, which is obtained in the 
form of oils or a fatty matter, and locally used as remedies 
for many complaints. 

Bay (Laurus nohilis). A native of the South of Europe, 
where it attains a considerable height, even 40 or 50 feet. 
It is well known in this country, but is often killed to the 
ground in severe winters, which circumstance gives it the 
appearance of a bushy shrub. The leaves are used for 
flavouring custards, puddings, &c. Figs imported to this 
country are also packed in them, and they a:re said to be the 
leaves -with, which ancient heroes were crowned, hence the 
phrase, " crowned with laurels." This must not be under- 
stood as the common shrub called Cherry Laurel, which 
belongs to the Cherry Family. 

American Sassafras {Laurus Sassafras). A native of North 
America, is common in the United States, where it attains 
a considerable size, forming a large head of horizontal 
branches, densely furnished in summer with large, broad, 
oblong leaves, often lobed. It is rare in this country. A 
tree at Kew, one hundred years old, has attained the height 
of about 40 feet. Its bark is used medicinally as a tonic, 
and is also made into a drink called saloop. Its fruit is a 
small black drupe, from which a perfume oil is obtained. 



250 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



In California, Oreodaphne Californica is a large tree. It 
has several names ; such as Spice-bush, Balm of Heaven, 
Cajeput tree, &c., which shows it to be a tree of repute as 
regards its medicinal virtues ; its leaves are pungently 
aromatic. It has been introduced to this country under the 
name of Laurus regalis. 

Canary Laurel (Laurus Cananensis), Royal Bay (^Lauims 
Jndica), are fine trees, natives of Madeira and the Canary 
Islands, having large shiny leaves ; the timber of the latter 
is used as a kind of mahogany. 

Til (Laurus fcetens). A tree, native of Madeira. It has 
broad, shining leaves ; its timber is remarkable in having a 
most fcetid odour which it retains for years ; and in that 
respect has a companion in the celebrated " Stink wood 
tree" of the Cape of Good Hope {Laurus bullata). 

Greenheart Tree (Nectandiia Rodioei). A large tree, 
native of Guiana, often having a clear stem of 40 or 50 feet 
in height, with a diameter of between 2 and 3 feet. Its 
timber is highly valued for shipbuilding, and is imported 
from Demerara for that purpose. 

Another Greenheart tree is Laurus chloroxylon, a native 
of Jamaica. It is a lofty straight tree of very uniform girth, 
having oval, elliptical, three-nerved leaves. The wood is 
very hard, resisting the power of the axe ; it is used for 
many purposes in sugar works and machinery. From one 
tree a straight beam has been obtained 40 feet in length and 
10 inches square. 

Alligator Pear, also called Avocado Pear {JPersea gratis- 
sima). A native of the West Indies and tropical America. 
It is a small tree, attaining the height of 20 or more feet, 
and produces a pulpy oblong fruit about the size of a large 
pear. It is now common in the Mauritius and other hot 
countries, where, as well as in the West Indies, it is much 
esteemed as a dessert fruit. 

Cinnamon {Cinnamomum Zeylanicum). A small tree, with 
alternate, oblong, lance-shaped leaves, having strong veins 
passing from the base to the apex ; it is extensively culti- 



THE LAUREL FAMILY. 



251 



vated in Ceylon for its bark, which rolls up in drying, like 
pipes about the size of the finger or larger, and forms the 
cinnamon of commerce. 

Cassia bark (JJinnamomum cassia). This is similar to the 
last, but has blunter leaves. Cassia buds are the young 
buds of this and some allied species. Other species also 
furnish aromatic barks which are used as substitutes for 
cinnamon. 

That cinnamon and cassia were known to the Israelites, 
appears evident from the fact that they formed two of the 
spices* ordered to be used in the preparation of the per- 
fumes and incense for the altar of the tabernacle. From 
this it must be inferred that a trade in spices was carried on 
through Arabia with India and Ceylon. 

Camphor {Camphora officinarurn). A tree, native of 
China and Japan. It yields the principal camphor of com- 
merce, the greater quantity coming from the island of 
Formosa. It is obtained by boiling the wood of the tree in 
water, when the camphor is deposited. 

The Dodder Laurel Family. 

(Cassythace^.) 

Twining pale-coloured plants, their seeds first germinating 
in the earth, but soon becoming parasitical on trees and other 
plants. Destitute of true leaves, which are represented by 
scales, their whole habit being similar to European Dodders, 
and although thus differing extremely in appearance from 
the Laurel Family, they nevertheless agree in the character 
of their flowers, which are in clusters. The family consists 
of about 6 or more species, all widely distributed through- 
out the tropics. They are of much stronger growth than 
dodder, even to that degree that they as readily destroy 
trees as the dodder destroys the plant on which it grows. 



Exodus, chap. xxx. ver. 23. 



252 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



The fruit is berry-like, formed of the succulent calyx, and is 
in some places used medicinally. 

The Protea Family. 

(PROTEACEiE,) 

Large and small trees or shrubs with alternate, rarely 
opposite, single lobed, winged leaves, much divided ; generally 
harsh and prickly, varying from broad elliptical to narrow, 
like needles. Flowers in spikes or heads, compact, or loose 
and panicled ; bisexual. Calyx 4-parted, or 4-cleft, each 
lobe with a concave apex bearing a sessile stamen (anther). 
Pistil simple. Fruit consisting of a 1 — 2 or many seeded 
follicle, separate or in compact heads, forming hard woody 
cones. 

This remarkable and distinct family of plants consists of 
about 1000 species, almost entirely confined to the southern 
hemisphere, the great regions being South Africa, Australia, 
and Tasmania, where the smaller sorts form harsh scrub. 
A few are found in New Zealand and Chili, and are re- 
presented in tropical America by the beautiful tree genus 
Bhopala, and in the Malay Islands by the genus Helicia. It 
is singular that such an extensive family should produce no 
products of importance to man. The larger trees are, how- 
ever, valued for their beautiful mottled wood, which is used 
in cabinet work. They have long been much admired as 
botanical curiosities, both in this country and on the 
Continent. 

Silver Tree {Leucodendron argenteum). A small tree with 
beautiful silvery lance-shaped leaves, native of Table Moun- 
tain, Cape of Good Hope. Its vicinity to Cape Town has 
led to its almost complete extirpation for firewood. 

Silky Oak (Grevillea rohusta). A native of Queensland, 
and probably one of the loftiest trees of the family; it 
attains the height of from 50 to 150 feet, with a diameter 
of from 6 to 8 feet ; its timber is valued. A plant 
introduced at Kew in 1826, has attained a large size, 



THE PROTEA FAMILY. 



253 



and with its mucli divided silky leaves presents a strong 
contrast to the more humble species of the genus, which 
consist of small shrubs, with willow, holly, box, or juniper- 
like leaves, producing pretty spikes of flowers. 

Another large tree of Queensland, Stenocarpus Cunning- 
hamii, is valued for its hard wood ; it has smooth deeply 
lobed leaves, a foot or more in length. It was introduced 
at the same time as the preceding, and grows and flowers 
freely in the greenhouse. 

Knightia excelsa is a large tree, native of New Zealand, 
attaining the height of 100 feet, and is valued for its timber ; 
it has simple, oblong, toothed leaves. 

Waratah {Telopea speciosissima). A native of New South 
"Wales. It has slender erect stems, simple toothed leaves, 
and a splendid flower, similar in size and colour to a double 
red Camellia. About thirty or more years ago it was a great 
favourite with amateurs, but being difiicult of cultivation, it 
is now seldom seen. 

Woody Pear {Xylomelum pyriforme). Also a native of 
New South Wales. A small tree with opposite leaves, being 
remarkable for its fruit, which bears the exact resemblance 
and size of an ordinary pear, but is attached by the broad 
end. It consists entirely of a hard woody substance, difii- 
cult to cut ; when ripe it splits lengthwise and contains a flat 
winged seed. 

Avellano Nut (Guevema Avellano). A small tree with 
winged leaves, native of Chili, and the wild almond 
{Brabejum stellulatum), native of the Cape of Good Hope, 
are the only two plants of the family that produce seeds 
of sufficient size to be worthy of the name of eatable 
nuts. 

A new genus has lately been discovered in Queensland, 
named Macadamia {M. ternifolia), a large tree with stiff" 
spiny leaves. Fruit a follicle containing a very hard nut- 
seed about the size of a marble, which is said to be good to 
eat. It is allied to the genus Helicia. 

The numerous species of Banksia and Dryandra are inte- 



254 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



resting plants, and have long formed an important feature in 
tlie Kew collection ; B. australis, B. compar, B. integrifolia, 
B. Solandri, and B. serrata, attaining the height of from 15 
to 20 feet, several being forty years old, while two plants of 
B. repens are upwards of sixty years of age. 

A few years ago the Kew collection of Proteacege 
amounted to 155 species. For many years plants of this 
family were rare in this country, but forty-five years ago the 
Clapton Nursery became, and continued for many years, 
famed for its large stock of Australian Proteaceous plants ; 
they were also plentiful in private collections of this 
country, as well as on the Continent, but the taste for 
show-llowers has caused them to be superseded, and now 
proteaceous plants are rarely to be seen. 

In Australia the Banksias are called " Honeysuckle trees," 
on account of the great quantity of honey contained in their 
flowers, which is also the case with Protea mellifera^ and 
others of the Cape of Good Hope. 

The Sarcocol Family. 

(Pen^ece^.) 

Small shrubs with opposite, distant or closely imbricate 
short leaves. Flowers solitary or in terminal heads, red or 
pale yellow. Calyx a shallow 4-lobed cup, with bracts at 
its base. Stamens 4 or 8. Fruit a 4-celled capsule. 

This family consists of about 20 species, natives of South 
Africa, the most interesting being Pencsa Sarcocolla^ which is 
said to yield the gum sarcocol, but there is no evidence to 
show that it produced the sarcocol of the ancients, which was 
famed for healing wounds. 

THE SPURGEWOET ALLIANCE. 
The Spurgewort Family. 

(EUPHORBIACE^.) 

Large woody or succulent trees, shrubs, frutlets, or herbs, 
many annual and weedy, abounding more or less in milky 



THE SPUKGEWORT FAMILY. 



255 



or watery juice. Leaves opposite, or alternate, entire or 
palmately lobed ; in succulent species absent or nearly so. 
The inflorescence and structure of the flowers are various, 
in some a number being contained in an entire or many 
sepal-like involucre, or highly coloured bracts, or each 
flower distinct, with or without a true calyx, sometimes with 
corolla, monoecious or dioecious. Fruit a 3 or many valved 
capsule, each cell containing a single seed; rarely fleshy. 
Various in different genera. 

This extensive family contains not less than 3000 species, 
all being widely distributed over the earth. In temperate 
countries they are chiefly herbs ; in Africa, particularly 
in the south and east, they have succulent stems, often leaf- 
less, some becoming large hard-wooded trees. Within the 
tropics they are large leafy trees, and in America assume 
their grandeur. In this country the family is represented 
by about 14 species of Euphorbia and Mercuralis, which are 
annuals and perennials, also by the well-known box tree. 
With few exceptions an acrid principle pervades the family. 

Cassava {Manihot utilissimd) (bitter) and M. Aipi (sweet), 
are slender-growing woody-stemmed plants, having lobed or 
palmate leaves. They are extensively cultivated in tropical 
America and the West Indies for their large fleshy roots, 
which are similar to parsnips, and contain a great quantity 
of farina, which is obtained by maceration and filtering in 
water, and on being dried is the cassava so much valued as 
an article of food. Tapioca is the starch which settles from 
the water used to wash the cassava meal, which is afl;erwards 
dried and granulated on hot plates. The roots of the bitter 
cassava in their raw state are highly poisonous, those of the 
sweet being wholesome. 

An inebriating drink is also made from cassava bread by 
the Indians, called "piwarrie;" it is made by the women, 
who chew the cake, which, after being well masticated, is 
ejected into a vessel, water being then added, and after fer- 
mentation it is boiled, and when cool is ready for use, the 
taste being said to resemble ale. However repugnant the 



256 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



process of manufacture may be to Europeans, it is well 
known to have been drunk by several eminent travellers, 
one saying, " In my opinion the piwarrie is very agreeable 
and wholesome, for I drank it in large quantities at the 
different Indian settlements I visited." 

Castor oil or Palma Christi {Bicinus communis). Originally 
supposed to be a native of India, but now widely spread over 
the warm regions of the earth. In this country it makes a 
handsome summer plant, having an erect stem from 4 to 5 feet 
high, bearing large broad lobed leaves, the whole being of a 
rusty dark appearance. In warmer countries, such as the 
south of France, it becomes a soft- wooded tree. The bruised 
seeds afford the well known castor-oil, the supply for this 
country being derived principally from India. The leaves 
have lately come into repute as food for a species of silkworm, 
and in some parts of Germany it is grown for that purpose. 

Croton Oil {Croton Tiglium). A native of India. The 
powerful oil used in medicine called " croton oil" is ex- 
tracted from its seeds. 

Pinhoen Oil (Jatropha Curcas). A small tree attaining 
the height of 20 feet, having soft spongy wood and entire or 
lobed leaves. It is a native of tropical America, and is now 
cultivated in all hot countries for its seeds, which yield an 
oil analogous to that of castor-oil, but of a drastic nature ; 
it is used for many purposes. The seeds are nutty and 
pleasant to eat, but when eaten to excess produce serious 
consequences ; a few years ago several children died at 
Bristol through eating them. 

Stinging Bush (^Jatropha stimulans : sometimes called J. 
horrida). A small straggling soft- wooded shrub with lobed 
leaves, covered as weU as the younger parts of the wood with 
stiff hairs like small needles, which sting fearfully and are 
much dreaded by the natives ; it causes an intense burning 
pain, with swelling, which is not confined to the part stung 
but sometimes spread over the body. A plant at Kew 
stung the writer on the wrist, and in a few minutes the 
poison extended up the arm and the upper part of the body, 



THE SPURGEWORT FAMILY. 



257 



the lips became swollen, and the whole of a livid red, faint- 
ing coming on in less than ten minutes, on recovering from 
which, the whole sensation went off as fast as it came on. 
The general health was, however, impaired for several days. 

Gum Euphorbium (Euphorhia officinarum, E. antiquorum, 
and E. Canariensis). Plants with succulent stems, almost 
leafless, natives of Africa and India. Their milky juice is 
highly poisonous, and when dried forms the drug called 
gum Euphorbium. 

Cattimandoo Gum (^Euphorhia Cattimandoo). A native of 
India, and very like E. trigona. It is from 8 to 10 feet high, 
and yields a gum little inferior to gutta-percha. 

Zebra Poison {Eupliorhia arbor ed). A tree, native of 
South Africa. Its milky juice is highly poisonous, whole 
herds of zebras having been killed by branches of it being 
placed in the water which they drank. It is also used for 
arrows- 

Eupliorhia Tirucalli, E. piscatori, and E. pendula are also 
highly poisonous ; a small portion placed in water kills fish 
very quickly. The most common example in this country is 
E. heliscopia, generally called "Little Goody," the milk of 
which is employed by rustics for removing warts. The floral 
bracts of several species are very showy and are favourites 
in cultivation, especially E. splendens, a native of Madagascar, 
E. punicea, of the West Indies, as also the well-known E. 
{Poinsettid) pulcherrima^ native of Mexico, which is an orna- 
mental plant in winter. Care is, however, necessary in 
pruning and handling them, serious consequences having 
occurred through the juice entering the circulation by cuts 
or in other ways. 

False Caper {Euphorhia Lathyrus). A strong-growing 
milky perennial plant from 2 to 3 feet high, having willow- 
like leaves. It has received the name of caper bush. The 
fruit is 3-celled and green, and has been used by the 
ignorant for capers, but they are dangerous if many are 
eaten. 

Manchineal Tree {Hippomane Mancinella). This, like the 
S 



258 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Upas tree of the East, is the celebrated poison tree of tropical 
America; it grows to the height of from 40 to 50 feet, and is 
generally found near the seashore. The leaves are simple, 
of an elliptical form, and shining, 3 to 4 inches in length. 
The fruit is of a yellowish green colour, and very tempting 
to the eye, but when bitten its acrid juice is very burning. 
Many wonderful stories are told of the virulent nature of this 
tree, even that it causes ill effects to persons lying under its 
shade ; its milky juice is highly acrid and blistering to the 
skin, and has caused blindness by the hands coming in contact 
with the eyes after the plant has been handled. 

Sand Box Tree {Hura crepitans). A native of the West 
Indies and many parts of tropical America. It forms a very 
large tree, and has long been cultivated in the hothouses in 
this country. Instances have been known of the juice of this 
plant causing fatal injury to the eyes. The fruit is very 
curious, being of a circular form, consisting of from 12 to 15 
valved cells which give it the appearance of a wheel about 3 
inches in diameter, each cell containing a single flat seed. It 
is often kept as a curiosity, but with over-heat or dryness 
bursts with a report as loud as a pistol, spreading its seeds 
and valves to a distance of 15 feet. 

Tallow Tree {Stillingia sehiferd). A native of China, 
where it is, as well as in India and some warm parts of 
America, extensively cultivated. It is a small tree with rhom- 
boid tapering leaves, and a 3-celled capsular fruit, each cell 
containing a single seed thickly coated with a white greasy 
substance that yields tallow, of which candles are made, and 
has also been used in this country in the manufacture of 
soap and as a substitute for linseed oil, also for dressing cloth 
and burning in lamps. 

Candle Nut {Aleurites triloba). A tree about 30 feet high, 
having simple lobed leaves, native of most warm countries 
throughout India, Malay, Japan, and the whole of the islands 
of the Pacific Ocean, where it is cultivated for the sake of its 
fruit, which is about 2^ inches in diameter, and contains a 
hard nut that yields a large quantity of oil which is exten- 



THE SPUEGEWORT FAMILY. 



259 



sively used in many of the Polynesian islands. In the 
Hawaiian islands the entire kernels are strung on a stick and 
lighted as candles ; this is also done in India, where the oil is 
much used. It is imported to this country for candle-making, 
and is said to be equal to sesame or rape oils. 

Caoutchouc, better known by the name of indiarubber, is 
the thickened milk sap of trees, principally of the bread-fruit, 
mulberry, dog's-bane, swallow- and spurge-wort families, the 
original and still greatest quantities being obtained from 
several species of Siphonia, a genus of the latter family. They 
are lofty trees, natives of North Brazil, Guiana, and different 
parts of Central America, S. elastica being the best known. 
It is a tree attaining the height of 50 to even 100 feet, and has 
smooth trifoliate leaves similar in size and form to those of 
the scarlet- runner. The flowers are inconspicuous, unisexual, 
and borne in loose panicles. The fruit is a 3-valved capsule 
bearing 3 nut seeds. It is found throughout the lower re- 
gions of the Amazon, and is abundant on many islands of that 
great river. During the wet season these islands are flooded, 
but as soon as the water subsides they are tenanted by nu- 
merous Indians and their families, whose occupation is the 
preparation of caoutchouc. The sap is obtained by making 
deep vertical and slanting incisions in the bark of the trees, 
the sap flowing from the wounds follows their downward 
course, and is caught in vessels at the lower end of the vertical 
incisions. By exposure to the air the sap thickens and becomes 
like a creamy paste ; a coating of it is then laid on clay moulds, 
which are suspended over slow fires. When the first coat is dry 
a second is added, and so on coat after coat till the required 
thickness is attained. When the drying is completed the mass 
is removed from the mould, and is the raw indiarubber of 
commerce, its blackness being partly owing to the smoke it 
absorbs whilst drying, and partly by exposure to the air. In 
Nicaragua and other parts it is made into flat cakes and hung 
up to dry without artificial heat.* 



* This is chiefly obtained from Gastilloa elastica (page 224). 

s 2 



260 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



The original use of this substance by the Indians was to 
make water vessels for domestic use, and for that purpose it 
Avas dried on moulds in the form of bottles, in which form it 
was first brought and still comes to this country. 

Our earliest knowledge of this important article dates from 
the discovery of America. We learn from history that 
the natives of St. Domingo were seen by Columbus playing 
games with elastic balls, and that the Mexicans had shoes and 
clothes made of an elastic substance. The first accurate in- 
formation of this substance was from M. Condamine, a French 
naturalist and traveller, in 1735. About 1750 specimens of 
it appear to have been received in Paris, and in 1772 it is 
recorded as having been sold in London. It is described by 
Dr. Priestley as an excellent article for rubbing out pencil 
lines from paper, and coming from the " Indies " it became 
familiarly known as " indiarubber ;" for fifty years from 
the above date it was scarcely used for any other pur- 
pose. Experimentalists were, however, not idle, and before 
the end of the century it was employed in rendering woven 
fabrics Avaterproof ; but on account of its stiffness in cold, and 
its stickiness in hot weather, it did not meet with patronage. 
In 1820 it was, however, more successful, being used in 
making articles of elastic dress, such as stockings, braces, 
garters, bands, and the like ; three years later it was again 
used to make waterproof clothing, which attained more suc- 
cess than the first, being less influenced by changes of tem- 
perature. 

In 1842, being 350 years from the time it was first seen by 
Columbus, the grand discoveries were made that "indiarubber" 
possessed the power of absorbing sulphur, which rendered it 
unaffected by extremes of ordinary temperature even to 
that of boiling water, and that it could be made to assume 
any degree of texture, from a thin elastic membrane to the 
rigidity, and even to the hardness and solidity of iron. In 
its sulphuretted state it received the name of vulcanized 
indiarubber ; this discovery has led to many patents being 
obtained for its use in the manufacture of all kinds of useful 



THE SPURGEWORT FAMILY. 



261 



articles, from the transparent membrane of the toy balloon to 
the wheels of carriages and machinery. Go where we will 
some application of caoutchouc is almost sure to meet the 
eye, and its uses are continually on the increase. Kich and 
poor, young and old, all share in the benefits derived from 
the extended use of this remarkable material ; and it may be 
well said that no vegetable substance has been more prolific 
for useful appliances in domestic economy. As might have 
been expected, so many applications have led to an increasing 
demand for the raw article, and it is worthy of consideration 
whether the supply from the present American localities 
can be continued, on account of the Indians in some places 
destroying the trees to obtain the milky sap, so that in time 
the Siphonia, called by the Brazilians " Seringo trees," may, 
like the Cinchona trees in the same country, become extinct. 
It is therefore desirable that the tree should be introduced 
into other countries, such as our West India colonies. Sierra 
Leone, Mauritius, Ceylon, and India ; and judging from a 
plant grown at Kew, it seems to be a tree of robust and 
quick growth. As already shown, the caoutchouc is also 
obtained from different species of Ficus, natives of the East 
Indies and other parts. 

African Teak (Oldjieldia Africana). A large tree, native 
of Sierra Leone, with digitate leaves and a dry 3-valved 
capsular fruit. The wood was introduced in 1819 for ship- 
building purposes, but was found too heavy for general use ; 
it is adapted, however, for steam vessels, as it stands a great 
degree of heat. It is also called African Oak. 

Cascarilla Bark {Croton Eleutheria). A small tree, native 
of the Bahamas, from whence is imported the well-known 
Cascarilla Bark, which is used as a bitter tonic. 

Malambo Bark (Croton Malambo). A shrub, native of 
Venezuela and New Grenada, growing to the height of about 
4 feet, having a yellowish somewhat corky bark, highly 
aromatic, like Calamus aromaticus. It is highly valued for 
medicinal purposes, and is even said to have proved useful in 
the treatment of cholera. In the United States it is said to 



262 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



be largely used for mixing with ground spices. The aromatic 
character seems to indicate that this plant belongs to some 
other family than the present. 

Agallocha {Exccecaria Ag alio chum). A small tree, native 
of India, generally found growing near the sea, abundant on 
the sunderbunds of the Ganges. Its milky juice is very acrid, 
blisters the skin, and is much dreaded by woodcutters. The 
wood is used for making charcoal, but the smoke is injurious 
to the eyes. It is also native of some of the Polynesian islands, 
where it is as much dreaded by the natives as the Manchineal 
of America. In Fiji it is employed for the cure of leprosy, 
its mode of application being very singular. The body of the 
patient is first rubbed with green leaves, he is then 
placed in a small room and bound hand and foot, when a 
small fire is made of pieces of the wood of this tree, from which 
rises a thick smoke ; the patient is suspended over this fire, 
and remains for some hours in the midst of the poisonous 
smoke and under the most agonizing torture, often fainting. 
When thoroughly smoked, he is removed, and the slime is 
scraped from his body ; he is then scarified and left to await 
the result. In some cases he is cured, but frequently the 
patient dies under the ordeal. 

Hy^na Poison {HycBnanche glohosd). A tree-like shrub, 
native of South Africa. It attains the height of from 8 to 10 
feet, and has smooth, entire leathery leaves. The fruit is 
highly poisonous, and is rubbed over flesh bait for the pur- 
pose of destroying hyagnas and other beasts of prey. It is 
said to contain strychnine. 

Kokra Wood (Scepa {Lepidostachys) Boxhurghii). A tree 
with simple laurel-like leaves^ native of India. The wood 
is hard, and is used for many purposes. 

Box Tree {Buxus sempervirens) . A well known evergreen 
tree or shrub, native of Europe and temperate Asia, and 
supposed to be indigenous in this country on Box Hill in 
Surrey. It attains the height of from 10 to 30 feet, and has 
a stem from 8 to 10 inches in diameter. The wood is hard 
and close grained, takes a fine polish, and is valued for 



THE CROW-BEERY FAMILY. 



263 



wood engraving, turnery, making matliematical instruments, 
&c. The chief supply comes from ports in the Mediter- 
ranean and Black Seas. The box, which forms the edges of 
garden walks, is a dwarf variety of B. sempervirens. There 
is a doubt if the Box Tree"* mentioned in Scripture is the 
same as this plant, or a species of Pine, but there is some 
reason to suppose that the " benches made of ivory"! were 
of boxwood. 

Turnsole {Croton (Crozophora) tinctoria). An annual, 
6 to 12 inches in height, native of the south of Europe. In 
France and other parts it is cultivated for the sake of a dye 
called "turnsole," which is obtained by bruising the whole 
plant. 

Another kind of dye is obtained from Eottlera tinctoria^ 
a tree common throughout the Madras Presidency. It con- 
sists of a powder which covers the capsules, and is scraped 
off when ripe ; it is of a red colour, and forms a considerable 
article of trade at Hyderabad and other parts of the Circars. 
It dyes silk a beautiful orange colour, also, by a diffe- 
rent process, scarlet. The powder has been introduced into 
this country as a vermifuge, and is known under the name 
of Kamala. 

The Crow-berry Family. 

(EMPETRACEiE.) 

Shrubs with heath-like leaves and inconspicuous flowers. 
The family consists of 4 species, represented in Europe 
by the " Crow-berry," by some called " Crake-berry" 
(Empetrum nigrum), a shrub not exceeding a foot in 
height, growing abundantly in the north of Scotland, where 
its berries form a considerable portion of the food of the 
"moor-fowl;" they are said to be wholesome, and eaten by 
the Laplanders. In Siberia a drink similar to lemonade is 
made from them. Allied to it is Corema (Empetrum) lusi- 



* Isaiah, chap. xli. ver. 19 ; and chap. Ix. ver. 13. 
f Ezekiel, chap, xxvii. ver. 6. 



264 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



tanicum, native of Portugal, and represented in North 
America by Ceratiola ericoides, a heath-like shrub 4 to 6 
feet high, and in South America by Oakesia. 

The relationship of the following families has not been 
well ascertained. 

The Pitcher-leaf Family. 

(Nepenthace^.) 

Fruticuls (generally climbing) with alternate sessile leaves, 
the lower part fiat, from a few to 18 inches in length, 
and 2 to 6 inches in width ; the apex suddenly contracted 
into a tendril or hook, bearing an appendage in the form 
of a pitcher or vase furnished with a lid, which is at 
first closed but ultimately opens as though by a hinge. 
The vase varies in size from 2 to 12 inches in length, and 
from 1 to 6 inches in diameter, and contains a natural fluid. 
Flowers dioecious, in terminal racemes. Fruit a many- 
seeded capsule. 

Natives of Ceylon, Malacca, Java, Borneo, and other 
eastern islands. The number of species does not probably 
exceed a dozen, eight of which have been introduced and 
grown at Kew. 

Pitcher-plant {Nepenthes distillatoria), a native of Cey- 
lon, has long been known in the hothouses of this 
country. It sometimes attains a great length ; a plant at 
Kew attained the length of between 30 and 40 feet. 
During the last twenty years other species have been intro- 
duced, one of the finest being N. Hafflesiana, a native of 
Singapore and Java. It has large fine crested pitchers, 
but is now far surpassed in size by JV. Bajah, a native of 
Borneo, the pitchers of which are 12 inches in length and 
6 inches in diameter, holding nearly a quart of water. 
Many of the pitchers bear an exact resemblance to a water- 
jug with a hd. Insects are attracted by the water they 
contain, and get immersed in it, where they die and 
become putrid, which is considered essential to the well- 
being of the plant. These plants have no useful properties, 



THE BIETHWORT FAMILY. 



265 



and are only grown as curiosities ; as such they are highly 
prized in this country. 

The Birthwort Family. 

(Aeistolochiace^.) 

Small trees or shrubs, generally climbing ; or gemmse- 
corms. Leaves alternate, round, elliptical, cordate, or lobed 
at their base, some with leafy scale-like stipules. Flowers 
axillary, solitary, bisexual, on long stalks or on very short 
stalks, and rising direct from the stem. Calyx (corolla-like) 
tubular, straight or bent, with a regular limb, or very 
irregular, consisting of a large flaccid lip sometimes with a 
spur. Stamens (anthers) 6 — 12 or 24, sessile, seated at the 
base of the tube, adhering to the pistil, which is short, rayed, 
or circular, and button-like. Fruit a succulent or dry 
membranous capsule containing thin flat seeds. 

Nearly 150 species constitute this family, the arborescent 
and climbing ones being chiefly natives of the tropics. 
They abound in America, where with Passiflora and Big- 
nonia they form an interminable interlacing of the forests, 
causing them to appear as if the whole were tied together with 
ropes. A few herbaceous species are found in distant locali- 
ties over the temperate northern hemisphere. On account 
of the peculiarities of structure both in flowers and wood, 
the relationship of Aristolochia is not well defined. There 
is only one floral appendage, which, although extraordi- 
narily developed, and assuming the appearance of a corolla, 
is nevertheless described by botanists as a perianth (calyx). 
It is probable, however, that it is a true corolla, and that the 
calyx is suppressed, its place being shown by a small disc 
round the base. The structure of the stems of the woody 
species is also peculiar in having no concentric circles, but 
separating lengthwise in wedge-shaped plates. 

Considerable medicinal qualities are ascribed to some of the 
species, which are bitter, tonic, and stimulating ; but its chief 
fame is its supposed efficacy in the cure of snake-bites. 



266 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



In tropical America various species of Aristolockia, as well 
as other climbing plants, receive the name of " Guaco," 
being a name for plants used in the cure of snake-bites ; and 
it is even said that the Indians have the power of taking 
hold of the most venomous snakes without injury to them- 
selves, by being what they call " guaconized," which is, 
having taken guaco. The European species, A. longa and 
A. sempervirens, are said to have the same virtues, being the 
plants used by jugglers for charming snakes. 

Snake Root (^Aristolochia serpentaria). A native of the 
United States, furnishes the drug called " Serpentaria," 
which was once considered as a remedy in snake-bites, but 
not now much valued. 

Aristolockia ring ens, a native of Brazil, is also used for the 
same as the preceding, as well as for other medicinal pur- 
poses. The root has a very disagreeable smell, like that of 
rue, and a strong, bitter, aromatic taste. 

Aristolockia Sipko. A hardy creeper, growing to a 
great length, native of North America. It has large heart- 
shaped leaves, and flowers bent down like short tobacco- 
pipes. Several remarkable species are cultivated in hothouses, 
such as A. grandiflora, A. gigas, A. lahiosa, A. ornitko- 
cepkala, and others, natives of tropical America. In these the 
appendage or lip of the flower is large, hanging loose from 
the tube, generally of a mottled dingy colour, looking like 
dirty rags. In A. grandijlora it is 1 foot in length, from 
which hangs a string- like tail 1^ to 2 feet in length; it has 
the appearance of a cowl or cap, and is said to be worn as 
such by the Indians. This is, however, far surpassed by 
A. Goldieana, a native of West Tropical Africa, having flowers 
above 2 feet in length, and about 1 in breadth. It differs 
from the American species by having 24 stamens. These 
species when in flower emit an odour like carrion, so strong 
as to be almost intolerable in a hothouse, but they are 
nevertheless valued as creepers and for the oddity of their 
flowers. 

Asarabacca (Asarum europceum). A native of this country. 



THE CHLORANTH FAMILY. 



267 



It is a low herbaceous plant with creeping stems, producing 
numerous kidney-shaped leaves about 6 inches high, growing 
compactly together; the flowers are produced on short stalks hid 
amongst the leaves, and of a brown colour. It was once held 
in medicinal repute by herbalists, but is not now much used. 

The Garryad Family. 

(Garrtaceje.) 

A family consisting of 6 species of shrubs, with opposite 
leaves and unisexual catkin flowers. 

Garrya elUptica. A handsome ornamental, hardy, bushy 
shrub, native of California, and attains the height of from 
4 to 5 feet. G. Jamaicensis is a lance-leaved shrub, native 
of Jamaica, and is grown at Kew. 

The wood of this family is destitute of concentric zones, 
which with other characters renders its position in the system 
uncertain. Allied to Garri/acece is the family Hehcingiacece, 
which is founded on a small shrub {^Reliving ia ru$cifoUa\ 
having opposite leaves and small fascicles of unisexual flowers 
growing on the midrib of the leaves. It is a native of Japan, 
nd has been introduced at Kew and found hardy when 
growing under the protection of a wall. 

The Chloranth Family. 

(CHLORANTHACEiE.) 

This family consists of about 12 or more species of herbs 
or fruticuls, with opposite simple leaves and small axil- 
lary panicles of inconspicuous flowers of anomalous structure, 
which renders their affinity not well determined. The best 
known is Chloranthus inco)ispicuus, a native of China, having 
leaves similar to the tea plant, but of a softer texture and 
paler colour, which are said to be used in imparting a per- 
fume to tea, but this appears doubtful, as the plant has no 
perceptible odour, and if used it is probably only to increase 
the bulk of the tea. 



268 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



The Pepper Family. 

(Piper ACE^.) 

Erect or climbing shrubs or fruticuls, often with swollen 
joints. Leaves simple, alternate, opposite, or in w^horls, 
often fleshy and longitudinally veined, sometimes with sti- 
pules. Flowers small, usually in tail- or catkin-like spikes, 
without calyx or corolla. Stamens 2. Pistils 3. Fruit small, 
berry-like, 1 -seeded. 

The Pepper Family are almost entirely confined to tropi- 
cal regions and consist of above 500 species, a great number 
of them being found in America, those with succulent leaves 
growing in dry rocky places, while others are epiphytal 
climbers. They contain a pungent and aromatic property, of 
which pepper may be considered the type. 

Modern botanists have classified them under a number of 
diff'erent genera, but they are here noticed under the old 
generic name of Piper. 

Pepper {Piper nigrum). A native of the East Indies, 
where it is, as in most tropical countries, cultivated. It 
is an epiphytal plant, climbing and clinging to trees like 
ivy, having heart-shaped leaves about the size of ivy leaves, 
producing flowers in spikes followed by berries like currants, 
that are first green, but after being gathered and dried be- 
come black ; such being the black pepper of commerce. 

White pepper is produced from the same berries divested 
of their skin by washing and rubbing. The kinds cultivated 
in Ceylon, Jamaica, and Trinidad have been grown at Kew, 
and although all are of the same habit of growth, yet they 
appear sufficiently distinct to be entitled to the rank of 
species, which may probably be the reason of the different 
qualities of pepper. It is a well known stimulant, and is 
mentioned by Theophrastus as being known to the Greeks 
and Romans; Pliny speaks of it as commanding a high 
price. 

Long Pepper {Piper Boxhurghii). The flower spikes of 



THE PEPPER FAMILY. 



269 



this plant are dried, and form tHe long pepper of commerce. 
Dutcli long pepper is said to be furnished by other species, 
especially by P. officinarum. These are much cultivated in 
the Indian Peninsula. 

Betel Pepper {Piper Betel). This in general grows in the 
same manner as P. nigrum^ and is extensively cultivated 
throughout Lower India and the Malay Islands for the sake of 
its leaf, which is chewed with the betel nut and lime, a 
custom general throughout tropical Asia. 

Kava or Ava {Piper methysticum). A knotted, erect, soft- 
stemmed shrub, 8 or 9 feet high, with heart-shaped dark green 
leaves. It is a native of many of the islands of the Pacific, 
where it is in common use for making a stimulating and in- 
toxicating drink, prepared by chewing the root and ejecting 
the saliva into a family bowl, varying in size according to 
the rank and number of the parties. After a certain quan- 
tity of juice is obtained, water is added ; it is then well 
stirred and strained, when it is fit to drink, and the whole 
party partake of it. The punch-ladle, as it may be caUed, is 
a bunch of tow (fibre of the paper mulberry), which is dipped 
into the liquid and then squeezed into the drinking-cup. 
The late Captain Sir Everard Home informed me that he was 
a guest at a royal banquet, and witnessed the whole opera- 
tion of preparing the drink. It is now repudiated in some 
of the civilized islands. 

A royal bowl with the tow ladle from the island of 
Tongataboo may be seen in the Museum at Kew ; it is in 
the shape of a boat, 4 feet 6 inches long, 2 feet 2 inches 
broad, and 1 foot 8 inches deep. 

Mastico {Piper elongata). An erect-growing species, with 
lance-shaped rough leaves, native of tropical America. It 
is in great repute for stanching the bleeding of wounds, being 
known in South America by the name of Soldier's Herb ; 
it was at one time considered so useful that large quan- 
tities of it were sent to India. This species, with many 
others, has been long cultivated at Kew. 



270 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



The Lizard Tail Family. 

(Saueueace^.) 

Csespitose, perennial herbs, with or without radical leaves. 
Stems about a foot in height. Leaves alternate, or 1 only, 
generally heart-shaped, with sheathing stipules. Flowers 
terminal, in short or long tail-like spikes, with or without 
a corolla-like involucre round the base of the spike ; without 
corolla or true calyx. Fruit a fleshy berry. Seeds few. 

Of this family about half a dozen species are known. They 
are natives of the temperate northern hemisphere, growing 
in marshes and watery places. Lizard Tail (Saururus cernuus), 
native of Virginia, has been long cultivated at Kew, as also 
Haattuynia cordata, native of Japan, the roots of which have 
a strong, unpleasant tidal-mud or fishy odour. 

Anemiopsis Calif ornica. A native of California and 
Mexico, has also been recently introduced. It diflers from 
the preceding in having radical leaves ; they are used as 
domestic medicines by the natives. 

The Water Liverwort Family. 

(PODOSTEMACE^). 

Leafy branching plants like liverworts, not exceeding G 
inches in height, growing on stones, chiefly in running 
water ; some consisting of erect stems, with numerous small 
flowers, having the appearance of a spike of Plantago with 
ripe seed, others being like glassworts. This singular family 
consists of nearly 100 species, divided into 21 genera, the 
greater number being natives of South America. In the 
region of the Eio Negro they form an important article of 
food to the natives for the greater part of the year, and New 
Grenada cattle feed upon them ; several are found in India. 
Species of Lacis, when burnt, yield alkali. 



271 



The Water Starwort Family. 

(Callitrichace^). 

Annual or perennial floating plants, having opposite or 
whorled leaves, and inconspicuous achlamydeous flowers. 
They grow in all parts of the globe in deep or shallow water, 
and comprise two species, both found in this country. Calli- 
triche aquatica abounds in ditches and canals, its leaves 
floating on the surface in the form of rays ; hence its name 
Starwort. Hornwort (^Ceratophyllum demersum), has long, 
slender floating stems, with whorled forked leaves. By 
some botanists these two plants are considered as types of 
distinct families, but by others they are placed in one. 



Division 3. — Diehlamyds. 

Flowers bisexual (generally), some unisexual furnished with 
calyx and corolla, which are seated below the ovary (inferior) 
or on its apex (^superior). Corolla monopetalous or polypeta- 
lous, separate and free, or attached to the calyx. Stamens 
hypogynous or epigynous, or seated on the calyx or corolla, 
perigynous. 

The corolla being monopetalous or polypetalous, and with 
the calyx seated above or below the ovary, admits of arrang- 
ing the families of this division as follows. 

Section 1. — Corolla monopetalous. 

* Calyx and corolla inferior. 
** Calyx and corolla superior. 

Section 2. — Corolla polypetalous. 

* Calyx and corolla superior. 

** Calyx inferior, with the corolla attached. 
*** Calyx and corolla inferior, separate. 

The principal exceptions to the above characters are in 
the Begonia and Gourd Families being unisexual, as also in 
some monopetalous corollas being so deeply cleft as to appear 



272 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



polypetalous, as in the Heatli alliance. Also in the polypeta- 
lous section some are more or less monopetalous (or what is 
termed gamopetalous), the petals being united by their 
edges as in Gourds. The ovary is also subject to slight va- 
riation, being partially superior or inferior, as in the Saxifrage 
and Water Lily FamiHes ; in some the corolla is absent, but 
rarely so. 

Section 1. — Corolla monopetalous, inferior (hypogynous). 

■j* Corolla generally oblique and bilabiate with didynamous 
perigynous stamens (Fig. 3, a) and 1 pistil. 

This includes all plants characteristic of the fourteenth 
Class of Linnaeus. 

THE MINT, VEEBENA, AND FOXGLOVE 
ALLIANCE. 

The Mint Family. 

(Labiate). 

Small shrubs, fruticuls, or herbs, generally with square 
stems, and opposite, simple, entire, rarely divided leaves ; 
the whole generally aromatic. Flowers solitary, in spikes or 
heads. Corolla generally curved downwards, 2-lipped. Sta- 
mens didynamous (sometimes two abortive). Fruit consist- 
ing of 1 or 4 small 1 -seeded nuts, contained within a persis- 
tent calyx. 

This truly natural family consists of 2500 species. They 
are widely distributed, the greater part being found in the 
temperate regions of the northern hemisphere ; they are also 
found, but sparingly, in the south. They contain a highly aro- 
matic and pungent property, which has caused many of them to ^ 
be held in high repute from time immemorial as possessing 
medicinal virtues, but few of them are now recognised in mo- 
dern practice. 

Lavender (Lavandula vera). A smaU shrubby plant, na- 
tive of the South of Europe, bordering on the Mediterranean. 
It attains the height of 2 or 3 feet, having narrow leaves ; it 



THE MINT FAMILY. 



273 



is much cultivated in some parts of this country, especially 
at Mitcham, in Surrey, for the sake of its flower spikes, which 
are used as domestic scent. From these is obtained by dis- 
tillation the oil of lavender, which, dissolved in spirits of 
wine, forms lavender water. L. Spica and L. stcechas, also 
natives of the South of Europe, yield an oil used by artists 
for varnishing, &c. Eed lavender drops of the shops are 
made by a mixture of lavender and rosemary. 

Rosemary {Rosmarinus officinalis). A stiff branching, 
bushy shrub 3 or more feet high, having narrow hoary leaves. 
It is a native of the South of Europe and Western Asia ; like 
lavender, it is cultivated for its perfume, which is of a sti- 
mulating and refreshing nature, and has received the name of 
"Herb of Memory." It grows abundantly in some parts of 
France, especially in Narbonne, where it scents the air and im- 
parts a flavour to honey. A conserve and liqueur are made from 
it, and it is also used in the manufacture of Hungary Water 
and Eau de Cologne. An oil is obtained from it which is used 
as a perfume. Rosemary was held in high esteem by the 
Greeks and Romans, its chief properties being a powerful 
stimulant to the nervous system, and was regarded as the 
emblem of fidelity. 

Peppermint {Mentha Piperita). An herbaceous plant with 
creeping roots, native of this country. It is extensively cul- 
tivated for the volatile oil it contains, which is procured by 
distillation, and is used as a stimulant. Peppermint water is 
prepared from it. An oil having a scent like bergamot oil 
is obtained from M. citrata. 

Spearmint (Mentha viridis). This has properties similar to 
the preceding, but in a less degree. It is used for culinary 
purposes, and is probably the " Mint"* spoken of in the New 
Testament. 

Pennyroyal (Mentha Pulegium). The two preceding species 
are of upright growth, but this creeps on the ground. It 
has a strong, not disagreeable scent, and is an old favourite 



* St. Matthew, chap, xxiii. ver. 23. 
T 



274 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



with ^country people as a remedy for throat diseases. This, 
with the two latter, also horse mint, (3/. sylvestris) are natives 
of this country. 

Sage {Salvia officinalis). A stiff shrub about 2 feet high^ 
with rough hoary leaves, native of the South of Europe, and 
has been cultivated in this country for above two hundred 
and fifty years. It is well known as a culinary herb, and 
was at one time used as tea, having tonic qualities. 

Marjoram {Origanum vulgare). A strong-growing peren- 
nial plant, native of this country, known by the name of wild 
marjoram. Oil of thyme is obtained from it, and is used by 
dentists and farriers. 

Sweet Marjoram {Origanum Ma jorana), Pot Marjoram, 
(0. Onites), Winter Sweet Marjoram, {0. heracleoticum). 
Perennial plants, natives of the South of Europe, and known 
in this country as pot herbs. 

Origanum JEgyptiacum is supposed by some writers to be 
the plant that formed the " bunch of hyssop,"* used by the 
children of Israel on leaving Egypt. 

Sweet Basil {Ocimum basilicum). An annual plant^ said 
to be a native of India, but it appears to have been early 
known in the South of Europe, and in this country for about 
three hundred years. It has a strong aromatic scent, being 
analogous to cloves, and is used for culinary purposes. 

Garden Thyme {Thymus vulgaris). A small compact shrub, 
native of the Sou.th of Europe, and like the preceding has 
long been known in this country as an aromatic pot herb. 
In France an oil is extracted from it, known as oil of thyme, 
but for which marjoram oil is often substituted. 

Hyssop {Hyssopus officinalis). A small shrub, native of 
the South of Europe, also long known in this country as an 
aromatic, pot herb. This is not considered to be the hyssop 
mentioned in several parts of the Bible, and which probably 
relates to different plants. {See Index.) 

Balm {Melissa officinalis). A perennial native of the 



* Exodus, chap. xii. ver. 22. 



THE MINT FAMILY. 



275 



South of Europe, and long cultivated as an aromatic herb. 
The favourite sweet-smelling window plant Balm of 
Gilead (^Dracocephalum canariense), is a native of the 
Canary Islands, but is not the plant that produces the Balm 
of Gilead spoken of in the Bible. 

Horehouud (Marrubium vulgare). This is called white 
horehound ; it is a strong growing plant with erect stems 
and hoary leaves, native of Britain, as also the South of 
Europe and Western Asia. It is a bitter herb, and its 
qualities medicinally are held in high repute as a remedy for 
coughs and colds. 

Ground Ivy {GUchoma hederacea). A common creeping 
herbaceous plant with kidney-shaped leaves, native of this 
country ; it has long been held in high repute for its medi- 
cinal virtues, which are however more imaginary than real. 

Dittany of Crete (^Origanum Dictamnus and 0. sipyleum), 
Eound hoary-leaved plants having hop-like flowers, often seen 
as window-plants. 

Cat Thyme {Teucrium marum and T. polium). Small neat 
shrubs, not exceeding a foot in height, with small leaves, 
natives of the islands and coasts of the Mediterranean. The 
first is used medicinally, and excites sneezing. Cats are fond 
of rolling on it. 

Summer Savory (^Satureia hortensis). An annual. Win- 
ter Savory (aS'. montand). A small hardy evergreen shrub, 
1 to 2 feet high, and, with the above, native of France 
and Italy. They are recorded as having been cultivated in 
this country as far back as 1562, and were then as now 
esteemed as pot herbs. 

Patchouli-pat (Pogostemon Patchouli). An erect fruticul 
growing to the height of 2 or more feet, having broad oval 
leaves 3 or 4 inches in length. The dry leaves have a pecu- 
liar perfume, and are extensively used for many purposes ; 
the scent of patchouli was considered as the test for the real 
Indian shawls ; but since the introduction of the perfume 
into this country they cannot be depended on, home-made 
shawls being scented with it and sold as real Indian ones. 

T 2 



276 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



The leaves are also used as an ingredient in tobacco, and an 
essential oil is obtained from them and used as a toilet perfume. 
The Arabs in their pilgrimages take a great quantity of 
leaves with them, which are used in stuffing mattresses, 
pillows, and the like, and are supposed to keep off contagion. 

Oswego Tea {J^Ionarda didyma). A perennial, attaining 
the height of 1 or 2 feet, having whorled heads of fine 
scarlet flowers. It is a native of North America ; the leaves 
have been used as a substitute for tea. 

The Verbena Family. 
(Verbenace^.) 

Large trees, shrubs, or herbs, generally with square 
stems. Leaves opposite, simple, or variously compound. 
Flowers small, inconspicuous, or of showy colours, produced 
in spikes, panicles, umbels, corymbs, or heads. Fruit a berry, 
or nut-like, 2 or 4 united. 

A considerable family of plants, consisting of about 700 
species, all widely distributed ; the herbaceous species are 
generally found in temperate regions and in the tropics; 
in New Zealand it is represented by large timber trees. The 
properties of many of the smaller growing species are of the 
same nature as the mint family, and in their respective 
countries are held in much esteem for their medicinal virtues. 

Vervain (^Verbena officinalis). A weedy plant, native of 
this country, growing a.bundantly by roadsides and in waste 
places ; in the time of the Druids it was held in high repute, 
and was worn as a charm against evil, and for good luck ; 
but the advance of knowledge makes the history of Vervain, 
like many other things, only curious as legends. Verbenas 
have become favourite plants for ornamental flower-beds ; a 
great number of varieties having come into notice of late 
years, which first originated from the scarlet-flowered 
species V. melindres, a native of South Brazil. The Lemon- 
scented Verbena, first known as F. triphylla, but now as 



THE VERBENA FAMILY. 



277 



Aloysia citriodora, is a stiff branching shrub, with whorls of 
three leaves, native of Chili, and was introduced to this 
country about the end of the last century ; it is hardy in 
many parts, and on account of its fragrance is often to be 
seen growing against cottages. 

Teak Tree (Tectona grandis). A native of India, extend- 
ing eastward to Burmah and islands of the Indian Ocean. It 
is a magnificent timber tree, the wood being hard and very 
durable ; it is largely imported to this country, and used for 
shipbuilding and railway carriages. Its young branches are 
quadrangular with opposite ovate or elliptical leaves about 6 
or 8 inches in length, and very rough on the upper surface, 
which renders them useful for polishing ; they also yield a 
red dye, which is to be seen by the upper surface of the 
young leaves becoming of a red colour on being bruised. 
An oil called teak-wood oil is extracted, and used for var- 
nishing and polishing wood, &c. The Indian teak forests 
are now under G-overnment protection. 

Another allied Indian tree is Graelina arbor ea ; it also has 
hard wood, which is used in India for many purposes, the 
same as teak, but it is a much smaller tree. 

Vitex littoralis. A large tree, native of New Zealand, at- 
taining the height of 50 or 60 feet, and of large diameter ; 
it has digitate leaves, and very hard and heavy wood that is 
used for purposes under water. It is known by the native 
name Puricri. 

The genus Clerodendron belongs to this family, a great 
number of showy species having been introduced. Most 
of them have large umbel-like heads of white or scarlet 
flowers. 

In botanical alliance with VerhenacecB and Lahiateoe, is a 
small family named Selaginacecd, consisting of 120 species 
of herbs, small shrubs, or fruticuls ; those native of 
South Africa, are chiefly represented by the genus 
Selago^ of which several species are cultivated in the 
greenhouses of this country; those of Europe and Madeira 
by the pretty blue-flowering genus Glohularia. They 



278 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



possess no particular qualities, except that Glohularia is 
poisonous. 

Stilhacece is a small family, by some botanists considered 
to be allied to VerhenacecB. It consists of about half a 
dozen species of heath-like shrubs, natives of South Africa, 
having small flowers produced in terminal compact heads or 
spikes. They are only botanically interesting. 

The Mustard Tree Family. 

( S AL VAD OR ACE^ . ) 

Soft-wooded trees or shrubs, with opposite, entire, leathery 
leaves. Flowers in compact panicles. Fruit a 1 -celled, 
1 -seeded berry. 

A small family, probably not exceeding 8 species, 5 of 
which belong to the genus Salvadora. They are natives of 
India, Ceylon, Arabia, North Africa, and Syria, the one 
most worthy of notice being persica, which is found grow- 
ing in Palestine, in the valley of the Dead Sea, and on account 
of its Arabic name and pungent berries, it was supposed by 
Dr. Boyle to be the Mustard Tree* of Scripture, but this 
view is not generally received. 

S. Indica, a native of Ceylon, is a much larger tree, having 
a diameter of 1| to 2 feet, and of a very soft corky substance. 
Botanists differ in their views respecting the affinity of this 
family. It appears to have closer affinity to the present 
alliance than to any other. 

The False Sandalwood Family. 

(Myoporace^.) 

Small trees, shrubs, fruticuls, or frutlets. Leaves alternate, 
simple, entire, rarely pubescent, sometimes with pellucid 
dots. Flowers solitary or several together in the axils of th 



* St. Matthew, chap. xiii. ver. 31. 



THE FALSE SANDALWOOD FAMILY. 279 



leaves, or rarely in terminal heads. Corolla uniform, 4-lobed 
or bilabiate. Stamens nearly equal. Fruit a drupe-like 
nut 2- or 4-celled. 

This family consists of about 40 species, chiefly natives of 
Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands ; few are found 
in the tropics. 

Bontia daphnoides. A small tree or shrub, native of 
many parts of the seashores in the West Indies, and on 
account of its resemblance to the olive, has long been known 
by the name of . Barbadoes Wild Olive. It possesses no 
special qualities or uses. 

Avicennia tomentosa. This is one of the trees called 
Mangrove ; it occupies vast tracts of the seashores in tropical 
countries, and extends south to New Zealand and Tasmania. 
It is, like the true Mangrove, remarkable for extending its 
domains seawards by strong roots, which rise out of the mud 
in an arched entangled manner, again entering the mud and 
sending up asparagus-like shoots, forming extensive im- 
penetrable coast jungles. In Brazil and other parts, the 
bark is used for tanning. It has opposite, entire, oblong 
leaves, 2 to 3 inches in length, having white down on the 
under surface, which has caused it to be called the White 
Mangrove. 

Myoporum tenuifolium. A tree, native of the Sandwich 
Islands, attaining the height of 15 to 20 feet, and a circum- 
ference of 3 or 4 feet. The heart of the wood is fragrant, 
and having some appearance of Sandalwood, is called 
Spurious Sandalwood ; it also contains an essential oil, but 
neither it nor the wood is esteemed like true Sandalwood. 
Several species of Australian Myoporum^ as well as M. Icetum 
of New Zealand, are cultivated in greenhouses as ornamental 
plants. 3f. parvifolium is a compact trailing plant, with 
numerous small pretty white flowers, and is very useful for 
planting in ornamental vases. 



280 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



The Figwort Family. 

(SCROPHULARIACE^.) 

Trees, shrubs, or fruticuls (some climbers), or herbs, often 
with square stems. Leaves simple, opposite, or whorled, or 
sometimes alternate. Flowers axillary, solitary or in spikes, 
racemes, or panicles. Corolla spreading or tubular, short or 
long, 4-lobed or curved and bilabiate, the lower lip in some 
inflated or spurred backward. Stamens 2 or 4, in some 5, 
perfect, as in Verbascum, or 1 sterile, as in Pentstemon. Pistil 
bifid, the lobes often broad. Fruit a 2 -celled, 2- or 4-valved 
capsule, sometimes opening by pores, as in " Snapdragon," 
(fi-g. 8,) rarely a berry, seeds numerous. 

Nearly 2000 species constitute this family, all being widely 
distributed, extending to the extreme limits of plant life in 
both hemispheres. They abound in the northern temperate 
regions, where they consist chiefly of herbaceous plants of a 
weedy nature, in the tropics and southern hemisphere they 
are generally shrubby. The whole of the family possess a 
more or less disagreeable odour, being mostly acrid and bitter, 
some even poisonous in a high degree. Few possess any pro- 
perties useful in the arts or domestic economy, but many are 
highly ornamental plants when under cultivation. 

Foxglove {Digitalis purjnu^ea). One of our most showy 
native plants, generally found growing on margins and open 
parts of woods, and conspicuous by its tall spike of pink 
flowers ; there is also a variety with white flowers. From its 
leaves is obtained a most important medicine, but it requires 
much caution in its use, for if unduly administered it sus- 
pends the action of the heart, causing sudden death. 

The following are interesting as garden plants. 

Paulownia imperialis. A moderate sized tree, native of 
Japan, introduced to this country about twenty years ago. 
It attains the height of 20 feet, or more, and has broad cor- 
date leaves, producing its flowers in terminal loose spikes. 
Although hardy, the season of flowering is too early to admit 



PI 15. 




THE FIGWORT FAMILY. 



281 



of their being perfectly developed in all localities. Its winged 
seeds are beautiful microscopic objects. 

Halleria lucida. A handsome greenhouse shrub, native of 
the Cape of Good Hope. 

Brunfelsia (or Franciscea) Americana^ B. latifolia^ B. caly- 
cina, B. unijiora, are handsome hothouse shrubs, and with the 
two preceding genera may be considered the most tree-like 
or woody plants of the family. New Zealand furnishes the 
beautiful Veronica salicifolia, V. formosay and others. 

Monkey-flower (Mimulus luteus). A native of North 
America, but has now become naturalized in some parts of 
this country. Many varieties have been raised, which with 
the Musk plant {M. moschatus), native of North West America, 
have become favourites in gardens. In this genus the stigma 
is bilabiate and irritable, the two lips collapsing together when 
touched with a sharp point. 

The genus Calceolaria, of which there are numerous species, 
natives of Chili and other parts of South America, have many 
varieties raised from the original introduced species, and now 
prized as flower-garden plants. 

Snapdragon (^Antirrhinum majus). A native of this coun- 
try, the varieties of which and several species of Linaria, Pent- 
stemon, Veronica, Chelone, and many others, are well known 
hardy garden plants. 

In the greenhouse Lophospermum eruhescens, Rliodochiton 
volubile, natives of Mexico, and Eccremocarpus scaher, are 
ornamental climbers. 

The family is represented in this country by about 40 species. 

On account of the genus Verbascum having 5 stamens, it 
has been placed by some botanists in Solanaceae, while others 
place it in the present family. They are tall growing bien- 
nial or perennial plants, mostly having woolly stems and 
leaves, 6 species being natives of this country. 

Great Mullein ( Verbascum Thapsus) has long been famed as 
a domestic medicine, and in consequence of its being used in 
pulmonary complaints in cattle, it has received the name of 
" Bullock's Lungwort." The dry stalks and leaves were in 



282 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



ancient times dipped in grease, and used as a substitute for 
candles and lamp-Avicks. In this country it is called High or 
Hag taper, on account of the sujDerstition that it was used by 
witches of old. In Scotland it is known by the name of 
Shepherd's club. 

The Butter, or Bladderwort Family. 

(LeNTIBUL ARIACE^. ) 

Eosette-leaved herbs or entangled branching floating plants, 
the leaves of the latter generally divided and root-like, bear- 
ing small air bladders (rarely peltate). Flowers in the 
former rising from the centre, and in the latter in panicles 
rising above the water. Calyx persistent. Corolla irre- 
gular, 2-lipped, the base generally with a spur, or nectary 
cyst. Stamens 2. Fruit a ] -celled capsule with many seeds. 

This family consists of 100 or more species. They are 
found in temperate regions, but most abundantly in the tropics, 
and are chiefly represented by the floating genus Utricularia^ 
of which there are two species natives of this country, 
U. vulgaris and U. mino?-, known by the name of Bladder- 
worts. They have pretty yellow flowers. Another interest- 
ing native species is the " Butterwort," a small rosette-leaved 
plant with pretty purple flowers, growing in moist places. It 
possesses the curious property of coagulating milk when 
poured over the leaves. 

Utricularia nelumhcefolia. A native of Brazil. A plant 
Avith round peltate leaves resembling pennywort. Although 
a water plant, its habitation is on trees, being found only in 
the water contained in Tillandsia ; the Utricularia^ dipping 
its running stem into one where it fixes itself, passes on to 
the next, thus connecting the Tillandsias together. 

The Broomrape Family. 

(Oroba nchace^.) 

Parasitical herbs growing on the roots of furze, broom, 
clover, flax, &c. They consist of a simple leafless, fleshy 



THE ACANTHUS FAMILY. 



283 



stem, from 6 inches to 2 feet or more in length, of a pale 
brown, red, or even blue colour, furnished with bract-like 
scales, terminating with a spike of labiate flowers ; rarely one- 
flowered, of the same colour as the stem, and difEering little 
in character from the preceding family. Above 100 species 
are described, but on account of their diflerent appearances, 
caused by the plants on which they grow, probably not more 
than one-half that number are distinct. They are widely 
distributed in Western Asia and North America, are also found 
in South Africa, and a few in India. Seven are natives of 
this country, of which Orohanche major is the largest species, 
growing on the roots of broom and furze, attaining the height 
of 2 feet. 0. minor grows on clover and flax, sometimes to 
the injury of the crops. 0. ramosa differs from the rest in 
being branched ; it is widely dispersed, being found at the Cape 
of Good Hope, in Abyssinia, Europe, and Siberia. They pos- 
sess astringent qualities, and have some medicinal reputation. 

Toothwort {LaihrcBa Squamaria). A native of this coun- 
try, growing abundantly in open parts of woods. It has 
pale-coloured stems, almost white, about 6 inches in height. 
On account of the shape of the flower being like teeth, it was 
in ancient times supposed to be a cure for toothache, but 
such was mere fancy. In their general habit and manner of 
growth they resemble the Cistus-rape family, but their com- 
plete flowers distinguish them from it. 

The Acanthus Family. 

(ACANTHACEiE.) 

Shrubs, fruticuls, some climbers or perennial gemmsecorm 
herbs ; some spiny, generally with square stems having 
swellings below the leaves, which are opposite, simple, entire, 
or variously lobed, or deeply slashed and spiny. Flowers 
axillary, or more generally in terminal spikes, racemes, or 
panicles, sometimes pendulous, often furnished with leafy- 
bracts. Fruit a 2-celled, 2-valved, round or compressed 
capsule, bursting with elastic force. 



284 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



This extensive family consists of about 1500 species, 
natives chiefly of the tropics. They are generally of a 
weedy nature, and of no special use to man ; many are, 
however, used in medicine in their respective countries. 
Some have handsome flowers, such as Justicia, Cyrtanihera^ 
Thunhergia, Aphelandra, Ruellia, Meyenia, Hexacentris, 
&c., and on that account are cultivated in the hothouses 
of this country. In Europe it is represented by Acan- 
thus spinosus and A. mollis^ hardy perennials, the leaf of 
which is the adopted pattern for the architecture of the 
Corinthian capital. Ruellia tinctoria, a native of Assam and 
other parts of India, where it is caUed " Room," is probably 
the same as E. indigotica, a native of China. They afford a 
blue dye equal to indigo, which is obtained by maceration of 
the stalks and leaves in water, and is extensively used in 
India and China for dyeing all manner of cloth. 

The Gloxinia Family. 

(Gesxerace^.) 

Erect or trailing fruticuls, frutlets, or herbs, often with 
tuberous or scaly root-like stems (lepicorms). Leaves simple, 
opposite, or whorled. Flowers solitary, or in racemes, or 
panicles. Corolla spreading or tubular, showy. Fruit cap- 
sular, or berry-like with many seeds. 

This family, which probably consists of nearly 300 
species, is widely distributed, being found chiefly in the 
tropics ; but some beyond, as Streptocarpus in South 
Africa, Fieldia in New South Wales, and Ramondia pyre- 
niaca in Europe. Tropical America abounds in species of 
Gesneria, Gloxinia, and Achimenes, while in the East they are 
represented by ^schynanthus, Didyinocarpus, Chirita, and 
many others well known as beautiful flowers in our green- 
houses, for which only the family is worthy of special notice, 
as they possess no useful qualities. 



285 



The Sesamum and Grapple Plant Family. 

(Pedaliace^.) 

Annual plants with simple, alternate, opposite leaves, fur- 
nished with soft glandular hairs, rarely spiny. Flowers 
generally large and showy, similar in character to Big- 
noniacecB, the principal difference being in the fruit, which 
at first is soft, becoming a 1 -seeded, hard, spiny, capsular 
fruit, generally splitting, with 2 or more hooked appendages. 

About 25 species are enumerated of this family. They 
are natives chiefly of the tropics, where they are widely 
distributed, the greater number being found in Africa. 
They are of a mucilaginous nature, the most important 
being Sesamum Indicum^ an annual plant, native of the East 
Indies, and now cultivated in many warm countries for the 
sake of its seeds, which yield " Gingilic oil," used for many 
purposes of domestic economy, and even for adulterating 
olive oil. In gardens the family is represented by Mar- 
tynia fragrans, and other species, having showy flowers like 
foxglove. Allied to them is the Grapple plant (Uncaria 
procumbens), native of the Cape of Good Hope. 

They are remarkable for their curious fruits, which 
in Martynia when dry become hard and black, having two 
stiff incurved hooks at one end from 1 to 2 inches or more 
in length, formed by the splitting of the placenta, having 
some resemblance to a stag beetle. In Uncaria the fruits 
are more like a large spider with eight long legs ter- 
minated with incurved hooks. The size of an average 
fruit is about 3 inches each way. These hooks are 
extremely troublesome to travellers, hooking into their 
clothes, and are a torture to cattle by hooking into their 
mouths. 

Pedalium murex. An annual, soft, succulent-leaved plant, 
native of the coasts of the Western Peninsula of India and 
Ceylon. It has a musky smell, and possesses the peculiar 
property of imparting mucilage to water simply by the 



286 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



leaves being drawn several times through it, which renders it 
milky ; it is used for adulterating milk. 

THE TRUMPET FLOWER AND CALABASH 
ALLIANCE. 

The Calabash Family. 

(Crescentiace^.) 

Small trees or climbing epiphytal shrubs, with simple, 
winged, serrate, or digitate, alternate leaves. Flowers pro- 
duced on short footstalks, two or more together on the old 
stems or branches. Corolla regular or slightly curved, and 
2-lipped. Stamens didynamous, with a rudiment of a fifth. 
Fruit large, woody, globose, or more or less elongated and 
cylindrical (club gourd-like), containing numerous kernel- 
like seeds embedded in pulp. 

About 40 species constitute this family. They are widely 
distributed throughout the tropics, but the greater number 
are found in Madagascar and Mauritius. 

Calabash {Crescentia cujete). A well-known tree, wild 
and cultivated throughout the West Indies and tropical 
America. It is a rude branching tree, attaining the height 
of 20 to 30 feet, with simple leaves, or often three together 
on a broad leafstalk. This and C. cucurhitina are most 
important for the purposes to which the shells of their fruit 
are applied ; the first has globose fruit varying in size from a 
few to 18 inches in diameter ; that of the latter being more 
oval and oblong, and also of various sizes. Domestic utensils, 
such as cups, water-bottles, spoons, and the like, are made 
from them, which are in as common use in their respective 
countries as crockery-ware is in this country. The pulp in 
which the seed lies is used by negroes as a medicine. 

Kigelia pinnata. A tree, native of Eastern Africa, extend- 
ing from Egypt to Natal. It has winged leaves and somewhat 
spindle-shaped gourd-like fruit, from 18 inches to 2 feet in 
length, and from 5 to 8 inches in girth. It has no remarkable 



THE TKUMPET- FLOWER FAMILY. 287 



qualities, but is held sacred bjtlie negroes in the performance 
of their religious ceremonies. 

Parmentiera cereifera. A tree attaining the height of 20 
feet, native of the forests of Panama ; it has trifoliate leaves, 
and fruit from 3 to 4 feet in length, and about 1 inch in 
diameter, of a yelloAvish colour, hanging from the tree so as to 
present the appearance of wax-candles, and in such abundance 
as to give the idea of a chandler's shop, whence it has received 
the name of Candle Tree. They are greatly used as food 
for cattle, which fatten on them, but imparts an apple-like 
smell to the flesh. 

The Trumpet- Flower Family. 

(BlGNONIACEiE.) 

Trees or shrubs, often climbing, rarely frutlets, having 
stems or young branches more or less compressed or angular. 
Leaves opposite, simple or compound, often furnished, in the 
American species, with claw-like tendrils. Flowers solitary, 
or in terminal racemes or panicles. Calyx entire, 2-lipped or 
spathe-like. Corolla tubular or bell-shaped, nearly regular 
or curved, and somewhat 2-lipped. Stamens generally 5, 
unequal in length, sometimes 3 sterile. Fruit a pod-like 
2-valved capsule, round, oblong or long, flat or cylindrical, 
containing numerous flat seeds, generally surrounded by a 
membranous wing. 

Nearly 500 species constitute this family, many of which 
are large trees, others climbers, entangling tropical forests, 
their stems often looking like ropes and cables, and adding 
great beauty to the scenery by brilliant clusters of trumpet- 
shaped flowers. They are represented throughout tropical 
and temperate America, Asia, Australia, and South Africa. 
With the exception of a few held in repute in their respec- 
tive countries for medicinal virtues, they possess but few 
economic uses. Bigmnia Cliica, a creeper, is however of im- 
portance, its leaves, when soaked in water, depositing a red 



288 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



pigment, with which the Indians in the countries of the Ori- 
noco paint their bodies. 

Catalpa syringcBfolia. A native of the United States, in- 
troduced to this country about one hundred years ago ; it i; 
a hardy spreading branched tree, attaining the height of 
from 20 to 25 feet, having heart-shaped leaves and handsome 
erect racemes of white flowers. 

Bignonia radicans. A climbing plant with pinnate leaves, 
and large bunches of trumpet-shaped orange-coloured flowers. 
It is a native of North America, and grows freely in thia 
country, clinging to walls by its stem-roots like ivy. 

Allied to this but not so hardy, and having larger flowers, 
is B. grandijlora, a native of China. B. capreolata, of North 
America, is also a creeper, supporting itself by tendrils, but 
not so showy as B. radicans. B. capensis, introduced in 1821 
from the Cape of Good Hope, B. Jasminoides, of Australia, 
with several Brazilian species, are showy creepers. B. adeno- 
phylla^ B. ama"na, are trees, natives of India, having very 
showy flowers. 

Spatliodea campanulata. A tree native of the West and 
other parts of tropical Africa, has pinnate leaves and large 
campanulate flowers like the orange lily. 

The Horseradish Tree Family. 

(MORINGACE^.) 

Small trees, with twice or thrice winged leaves, and coloured 
deciduous stipules. Flowers white, in panicles. Petals 5, 
unequal, their base united in the tube of the calyx. Stamens 
10, part abortive and 4 didynamous. Fruit a long 3-sided, 
3-valved pod, containing 1 row of pea-like seeds. 

The four known species of this family are natives of theEast 
Indies and Arabia, but they have been introduced to many 
other tropical countries. The only species of importance is 

Moringa pterygosperma. A small tree. On account of its 
bark and roots having the flavour of horseradish, and being 
used as such, it is known in the English colonies by the name 



THE DOGBANE FAMILY. 



289 



of Horse-radisli Tree. Its seeds by pressure yield an oil, which 
is extensively used in India and other countries for many pur- 
poses. It is known by the name of Ben oil, and is used by 
watchmakers. The unripe pods make an excellent vegetable. 
On account of the peculiar structure of the flower and fruit 
of this family, botanists have differed in their views with 
regard to its relationship. In some points it is related to 
the Pea Family, but it has been lately referred to this 
alliance. 

** Corolla straight^ regular^ tubular^ urceolate or spreading, 
4 or 5 toothed {Fig. 2, a.) or cleft, nearly polypetalaus. 
Stamens 5, perigynous. Pistil 1 or rarely 2. 

THE CONVOLVULUS, DOGBANE, AND SWALLOW- 
WORT ALLIANCE. 

The Dogbane Family. 

(Apocynace^.) 

Trees, shrubs, or herbs, often climbing and twining, con- 
taining milky juice. Leaves opposite sometimes whorled or 
irregular, entire. Flowers variously produced, often large 
and shoAvy. Calyx persistent. Corolla convolute, with co- 
rona-like appendages. Stamens 5. Pistil 1, or generally 
2, to which the anthers closely adhere. Fruit fleshy with 
embedded seeds, or a double follicle or capsule, containing 
numerous winged seeds. 

This extensive family consists of nearly 600 species, chiefly 
tropical, being represented in Europe by Vinca, in North 
America by Apocynum, and in Australia by Alyxia, Lyonsia 
and others. With a few exceptions their principles are of 
a highly poisonous nature, but some are harmless and yield 
useful products. 

Oleander (Nerium Oleander). A handsome evergreen shrub, 
native of the Levant and naturalized in the South of Europe ; 
it has been cultivated in this country for three hundred years, 

XT 



290 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



and with the myrtle and orange was one of our first green- 
house plants. It is highly ornamental, and has very fragrant 
flowers. It grows abundantly in the valley of the Jordan, 
and when in flower is very beautiful. The whole of the 
plant is poisonous, and it is recorded that soldiers in Spain 
Avere poisoned through their meat being roasted on spits made 
of the peeled stem. Nerium^ or, as now called, Adenium obe- 
sium, is a remarkable gouty stemmed almost leafless plant, 
growing on dry rocks at Aden, Small plants about 2 feet 
high were received at Kew which had a resemblance to Cham- 
pagne bottles, 

Adenium Namaquanum. A native of Namaqualand in 
South Africa. It is a singular plant having an erect stem 
about 6 inches in diameter, slightly tapering up to the height 
of 5 "or 6 feet, bearing on its apex a tuft of obovate leaves 
4 to 5 inches in length, and a few bunches of small purple 
flowers. The stem is covered with tubercles, each tubercle 
furnished with two spreading horny spines. 

Ordeal Tree of Madagascar {Tanghinia veneniferd) . A soft- 
wooded tree, with stiff" branches and elliptical lanceolate 
leaves, 4 or 5 inches in length, generally in tufts at the apex 
of the branches, and leaving a prominent mark or scar on 
falling away. It has pretty whitish-pink flowers, and pro- 
duces a fleshy fibrous drupe, about the size of a magnum 
bonum plum, containing a hard stone seed, the kernel of 
which is highly poisonous. In Madagascar, persons suspected 
of crime are made to swallow a small portion of the kernel, 
and if they die from its effects, are supposed to be guilty. 
It is said to produce death in twenty minutes. Condemned 
criminals are also put to death by simply being pricked with 
a lance dipped in the juice of the kernel. 

Wheel-tree or Paddle- wood {Aspidosperma excelsum). A 
large tree, native of Guiana, and is remarkable in having the 
stem regularly fluted, often giving the appearance of several 
small trees stuck to a large one, which are cut aAvay and 
used by the natives as paddles. It is sometimes 4 or 5 feet 
in diameter, and when cut transversely the section has the 



THE DOGBANE FAMILY. 



291 



appearance of the rays of a wheel, and when cut longitudi- 
nally form ready-made planks. 

A number of Brazilian trees of this family yield an abun- 
dance of milky juice, and are called Cow Trees. Two 
species of Collopliora found on the Eio Negro are handsome 
trees, from 30 to 35 feet high, having beautiful bunches of 
red flowers. On the stems being pierced the juice flows 
abundantly, and is used by the Indians for milk. 

Roupellia grata. A handsome creeper, native of Sierra 
Leone, and has been introduced to this country. It has 
pretty white flowers tinted with pink. This was once sup- 
posed to be the Cream-fruit tree, but it has been lately 
proved not to be correct, the tree producing such being still 
unknown. 

Carpodinus dulcis and C. acidus. Climbing plants, also 
natives of Sierra Leone. The first has fruit of a yellowish 
colour, about the size of a lemon, and the latter somewhat 
smaller. They are pulpy, and when cut yield a quantity of 
sweet milky juice, which is found agreeable. The first 
is known by the name of Sweet, and the latter Sour 
Pishamin. 

Urceola elastica. A large climber, having a black stem 
as thick as a man's body. It is a native of Borneo, and other 
contiguous islands. A quantity of caoutchouc is obtained 
from it. The fruit is the colour of an apricot, and is 
wholesome. 

Vahea madagascarensis and V. gummifera. Natives of 
Madagascar, are also large climbers, almost becoming trees, 
yielding abundance of caoutchouc. There is another species, 
native of Western tropical Africa, which is believed to be 
one of the plants that supplies the caoutchouc of that 
country. 

Carissa Carandas. A large straggling spiny shrub, with 
small leaves and flowers, growing abundantly on the coast of 
CoromandeL Its fruit, which is the size of a small plum, is 
pickled and made into preserves. 

Aixluina bispinosa. A compact, stiff", spiny bush, with 
u 2 



292 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



box-like leaves and small sweet-scented white flowers. It is 
a native of South Africa, and produces an oblong drupe-liko 
fruit, of which there is a large variety. A. grandiflora is 
called Natal Plum. They make excellent preserves. 

Alstonia scholaris. A large tree, native of Ceylon, India, 
and Burmah. The leaves groAV in whorls round the 
branches. It yields a milky juice, Avhich is used as gutta- 
percha. The wood is light and white, and is used for 
domestic purposes. 

The family is represented in the open air in this country 
by four species of Apoci/num^ three being natives of North 
America. They are perennial plants, extending to a great 
distance by their rimning roots, and have small pink flowers. 
They have tough fibre, that of A. cannahinum and A. hyjperi- 
cifolium is made by the Indians into fishing nets, lines, &c. ; 
and is known by the name of Indian Hemj). A considerable 
number are cultivated in hot-houses as highly ornamental 
plants — such as Allamanda, Echites^ Dipladenia^ and Plu- 
mieria. P. rubra, in the West Indies being called Eed 
Jasmine, as also "Frangipane" — a name also given to the 
sweet-smelling flowers of P. acuminata. 

TaheriKEmontana coronaria. -A native of India, the variety 
with double flowers forms a good substitute for the Cape 
Jasmine. As a curiosity, it may be mentioned that the 
Cingalese have a tradition that the Garden of Eden was situ- 
ated in Ceylon, and that a species of this genus was the 
" tree of knowledge of good and evil." 

The SwaUow-Wort Family. 

( ASCLEPIADACE^. ) 

Gemmsecorm herbs, or erect, or generally twining or 
climbing epiphytal fruticuls, or with fleshy (sarcocauls) or 
tubercorm stems, the Avhole containing milky or watery juice. 
Leaves entire, opposite, whorled or alternate, often with a 
ringed footstalk. FloAvers solitary or few together, or in 
umbels or racemes. Calyx persistent. Corolla 5-lobed, with 



THE SWALLOW- WORT FAMILY. 



293 



a central more or less elevated 5-sided corona, bearing 5 
stamens, each consisting of two separate masses of pollen 
attached to a gland. Stigmas 2, generally covered with the 
corona, which has 5 vertical slits or pores in its sides, 
through which the pollen reaches the stigmas (fig. 4, c and 
d). Fruit generally in two distinct follicles, compactly 
packed v/ith seeds, furnished with fine silky hairs. 

Nearly 1000 species constitute this family. They are of 
remarkable diversity of form, and generally abound within 
or near the Tropics; a great number being natives of dry 
arid places in South Africa, chiefly consisting of the succulent 
and leafless genus Stajielia, the tuberous stemmed Brachystelma 
and such like plants. In India and the Malayan Islands they 
are represented by climbing Hoyas, Ceropegias, Stepha?iotis, 
&c. ; in Tropical America by Gonolohus ; and in north tempe- 
rate regions by Asclepias Cynanclium and the climbing 
Feriploca of the South of Europe. 

The principle of the family is on the whole acrid and 
poisonous, but in some cases the milk is said to be harmless ; 
many, however, have great reputation in their respective 
countries for their medical virtues, such as Tylophora asth- 
■niatica, the roots of which are substituted in India for 
Ipecacuanha. 

Gymnema sylvestre. A tree, native of the northern part 
of India, having thick fleshy leaves, which, when chewed, 
have the singular effect of destroying the taste of sugar, 
making it feel like sand in the mouth. The most important 
products of the family are fibre and caoutchouc. Many are 
cultivated, and much admired in the hothouses of this coun- 
try, such as Stephanotis Jloribunda, Hoya car?iosa, H. im- 
perialism several species of Ceropegia, and numerous species of 
Stapelia, the flowers of the latter being fleshy and having 
the odour of putrid meat (see page 52). 

Muddar (^Calatropis gigantea). A shrub or small tree 
about 15 feet high, native of India, yielding a fibre equal to 
hemp, and a kind of gutta-percha is obtained from its milky 
juice. C. procera is abundant in the valley of the Dead Sea, 



294 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



and its fruit is by some supposed to be the " Apple of 
Sodom." The roots of Hemidesmus indicus, are much used 
in India as a substitute for Sarsaparilla, and are called 
"Indian Sarsaparilla." 

The Bindweed Family. 

(CONVOLVULACE^. ) 

Shrubs, fruticuls, or herbs, often tubercorms, erect, twining 
or creeping. Leaves alternate, entire, or lobed. Flowers 
axillary or terminal, generally on long footstalks, 2 or more 
together, or in a one-sided raceme, some with bracts, which 
enlarge after flowering. Calyx imbricated, often unequal. 
Corolla tubular or salver-shaped, twisted before expansion. 
Fruit a capsule, dry or succulent. 

Nearly 700 species constitute this family. They are chiefly 
found in warm countries, the great mass being represented 
by twining plants, many of which have beautiful flowers, but 
of short duration, opening only at night and fading early in 
the morning. The greater number abound in a milky juice 
which is of an acrid principle. 

Originally the largest mass of the species of this family 
were contained in the genus Convolvulus and Ipomea, but 
modern botanists have separated them into a number of 
smaller genera. 

Sweet Potato or Batata {Batatas edulis). This is sup- 
posed to be originally a native of India, but it has long been 
universally cultivated throughout all tropical and subtropical 
regions. It forms one of the principal articles of food fur the 
natives of New Zealand and Islands of the Pacific. It is a 
twining plant with heart-shaped leaves, having flowers like 
convolvulus, and tuberous roots like potatoes ; by change of 
letters and pronunciation, the name potato was derived from 
the Spanish Batata. There are many varieties, varying con- 
siderably in size and shape from that of an ordinary potato 
to several lbs. in weight, some in Java attaining a large 
size. They are imported to this country from Spain. 



THE BINDWEED FAMILY. 



295 



Batatas Jalapa. A native of Mexico, near Xalapa, from 
whence it takes its name. It has large farinaceous roots, 
which are of a purgative nature, but although called Jalap, 
it is not the plant which yields the true drug of that name, 
which is produced by Exogonium Purga, a native of the 
higher regions of Mexico. The roots are round, of various 
sizes, and contain a resinous secretion, which is the strong 
purgative Jalap used in medicine. 

Iipomcea tuberosa. A native of Jamaica, and often grown in 
greenhouses in this country ; it also has purgative qualities. 

Scammony (^Convolvulus Scammonia). A long thick 
tuberous-rooted herbaceous plant, native of Western Asia. 
Scammony is obtained by cutting off the top of the root at 
the surface of the ground, when a milky juice exudes which, 
after becoming hard, is collected. It comes to this country 
from Aleppo and is used as a purgative medicine. An in- 
ferior kind, believed to be the produce of Periploca Scam- 
monium, comes from Smyrna. 

Oil of Ehodium (Convolvulus Scoparius and C. fioridus). 
Two small erect, branching shrubby species with small silky 
leaves and white-and-pink flowers, natives of the Canary 
Islands. On account of the scent their wood is called " rose- 
wood," from which an oil is extracted which is used in adul- 
terating attar of roses. The wood is now very rare. 

Convolvulus dissectus. A tropical species cultivated in 
France. It abounds in prussic acid, and is used in making 
the liqueur called noyeau. 

Many of the species of this family form very ornamental 
creepers in hothouses, but to have them in perfection they 
require much space. A number of years ago a plant at Kew 
of Ipomcea mutabilis covered a space of 150 square feet, and 
during the flowering season 200 of its beautiful blue flowers 
have been counted open at the same time. 

Ipomcea bona-nox. An annual, native of the East Indies. 
It has large flowers 5 to 6 inches in diameter, which being 
pure white have a remarkable appearance at night, and has 
led to the name of "moon flower" being applied to it. 



296 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Similar to this, but not in size, is the common Bindweed 
{Convolvulus)^ {Calystegias epimii). C. tricolor, native of the 
shores of the Mediterranean, as well as others, ornament 
the flower garden in summer. 

The Dodder Family. 

(CUSCUTACE^.) 

Parasites destitute of leaves, twining round other plants 
like coils of thread or string. Flowers in small sessile com- 
pact clusters. Fruit a capsule or berry. 

As a family this is by some botanists not considered dis- 
tinct from Convolvulacece. It consists of about fifty species, 
chiefly natives of temperate countries, the whole generally 
considered to belong to the genus Cuscuta, of which there 
are two species natives of Britain, viz., C. Epithymum, which 
grows abundantly on heath, and C. europoea upon thistles 
and nettles or other soft plants within its reach, involving the 
whole in destruction. Of late years two other species have 
accidentally been introduced, viz., — Flax Dodder ( (7. trifolii) 
and Clover Dodder {C. Epilinum). The first destroys whole 
fields of flax and the latter preys to a great extent on clover, 
both plants being the cause of great losses to the agricul- 
turist. In India some species are very large and powerful, 
involving trees of considerable size in their grasp. The 
seeds of Dodders vegetate in the ground, but when the young 
plant is of sufiicient length to attach itself to a contiguous 
plant of another family, it ceases to have further connexion 
with the ground but derives nourishment from the plant it 
has become attached to. 

THE PRIMKOSE AND PHLOX ALLIANCE. 
The Primrose Family. 

(PRIMULACE^.) 

Herbs, tubercorms, or frutlets with erect or trailing stems, 
or with radical leaves rising from a centre in rosette form, 



THE PRIMKOSE FAMILY. 297 

rarely aquatics. Leaves simple, rarely pectinate, opposite, 
whorled, or alternate. Flowers solitary in spikes, loose 
umbels, or axillary. Calyx and corolla tubular, spreading or 
reflexed. Fruit a dry capsule, opening by valves, or by a 
horizontal circular separation (as in Anagallis). 

This interesting family is represented by above 200 
species, chielly natives of the northern hemisphere, extending 
to high latitudes and Alpine regions, even to the verge of 
perpetual snow, also in elevated situations within the tropics. 
Many species of Soldanella, Cyclamen, Primula, and And- 
rosace, are interesting and beautiful plants in the flora 
of the Swiss Alps, and are much esteemed in Alpine col- 
lections in this country, P. Auricula having been intro- 
duced nearly three hundred years ago, and by cultivation 
has produced many fine varieties that are highly prized by 
florists. Several species, natives of this country, are also 
interesting, such as, Primrose (Primula acaulis), Cowslip 
(P. veris), Ox-lip or Polyanthus (P. elatior), Loose-strife 
{Lysimachia vulgaris), Money- wort (L. nummularia). 

The American Cowslip {Dodecatheon media) is also a 
beautiful hardy perennial plant. The Chinese Primrose 
(Primula sinensis) is now extensively grown as an early spring 
flowering plant well suited for room decoration. The genus 
Anagallis has beautiful red and blue flowers; the red 
pimpernel or four o'clock plant (A. arvensis), is common in 
waste places and cornfields. The most anomalous of the 
family is probably the Water Violet {Hottonia palustris), 
a pretty perennial plant growing in shallow pools and ditches 
in many parts of this country, having its finely pectinate float- 
ing leaves in a rosette form, from the centre of which rises a ' 
spike of pale blue or white flowers. The properties of the 
family are of an acrid nature, but not of much medicinal im- 
portance. 



298 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



The Phlox Family. 

(POLEMONIACE^.) 

Herbs, perennial or annual ; rarely climbing or shrubby ; 
having alternate, winged or more compound leaves. Flowers 
solitary, spiked, in panicles or corymbs. Corolla generally 
5-lobed. Fruit a 3-valved capsule, witli numerous seeds. 

This family consists of above 100 species, chiefly natives 
of temperate countries in the northern hemisphere, and 
South America. They possess no particular qualities, but 
many have been long cultivated in gardens for their showy 
flowers, such as different species of Phlox," Gilia, Polemonivm, 
Litnnanthes, Leptosiphon and others, while several species of 
the genus Cantua, shrubs, with beautiful pendulous, tubular 
flowers are ornamental greenhouse plants, not the least in 
impoi'tance being the well known Cobaa scandens, but which 
must, however, be considered anomalous in the family, as its 
general appearance is more characteristic with the Bignonia 
family. The seeds of Collomia grandiflora are beautiful 
objects in the microscope ; on being moistened, a mucous 
cloud is seen around them, which ultimately separates into a 
number of spiral threads. 

The Leadwort Family. 

(Plumbaginace^.) 

Herbs, or tufty evergreen frutlets. Leaves alternate, 
simple, broad, or narrow and grass-like, sometimes in tufts, 
some covered with chalk-like scurf Flowers in heads or 
spikes, or simple or much branched panicles, blue, pink, 
rarely white or yellow. Calyx plaited, sometimes coloured. 
Corolla a narrow angular tube, or of 5 petals. Fruit mem- 
branous, bladder like, 1-seeded. 

Nearly 250 species constitute this family, the greater 
portion being natives of north temperate regions, a few ex- 
tending to high latitudes in the south. Some are powerfully 



THE RIB GRASS FAMILY. 



299 



astringent, and tlie greater portion are acrid and blistering, 
as in Plumbago europea, which is used by beggars for raising 
artificial sores. Many species of the genus Statice, natives 
of the Cape of Good Hope and Canary Islands are well 
known as ornamental greenhouse plants. " Sea Thrift" 
Statice Armeria is common on the sea shores in this country, 
and is frequently used for border edging in gardens. Plum- 
bago carpentaz is an ornamental hardy perennial, native of 
China. P. rosea and P. zeylanica are pretty flowering stove 
plants 

The Rib Grass Family. 

(Plantaginace^.) 

Annual or perennial herbs or frutlets, having generally 
broad or narrow leaves rising from a centre in a rosette 
form, and usually ribbed from the base to the apex. Flowers 
in simple compact spikes. Calyx 4-parted. Corolla thin, 
4:-lobed, persistent. Stamens 4. Fruit a membranous 
capsule, opening transversely (fig. 8), containing 1 or many 
seeds. 

About 100 species are contained in this family, consisting 
chiefly of species of the genus Plantago. They are generally 
weedy plants, widely distributed, principally in temperate 
regions, and represented in this country by Rib Grass 
(P. (anceolata and P. major), the seed spikes of the latter 
being in common use for feeding cage birds. P. media is 
common in pastures and hayfields. Its retention of moisture 
leads to great delay in the drying of hay, and its fermenta- 
tion often causes haystacks to take fire, on which account 
it is called by the farmers fire leaves. 

P. coronopus is common in waste places; it has divided 
leaves, and in some localities has received the names of 
Bucks Horn Plantain, or Star of the Earth. The leaves are 
used in France as a salad. The seeds contain much mucilage ; 
those of P. arenaria are imported from the South of France, 
and used in the manufacture of muslin. 



800 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



THE BOEAGE AND NIGHTSHADE ALLIANCE. 
The Borage Family. 

(BORAGINACE^.) 

Shrubs or herbs. Leaves simple, alternate, covered with 
hairs, which often rise from tubercles, and give a degree of 
roughness specially characteristic of the family. Flowers 
sometimes solitary and axillary, but generally in twisted 
one-sided spikes or racemes. Corolla tubular or salver- 
shaped. Fruit 4 distinct nuts, or 2 and 2 united, each 
1 -seeded, included within the permanent calyx. 

This family consists of nearly 700 species, almost all con- 
fined to the temperate countries of the northern hemisphere, 
the greater number being natives of Europe and Western 
middle Asia. Comparatively few are found in North 
America. In the Canaries, Madeira and countries of the 
Mediterranean they are represented by shrubby and showy 
species of Echium. They are soft, mucilaginous and in- 
nocuous. A great number are of a weedy nature. 

Borage (Borago officinalis). A native of England, grow- 
ing in neglected places. It attains the height of 2 or 3 feet, 
having very rough leaves and pretty blue flowers. It is 
grown in gardens, and used for making a cooling drink, 
called cold tankard. Its famed virtues for other j)urposes 
are however much more ideal than real. 

Comfrey (^Symphytum officinale). A strong grooving peren- 
nial plant, native of Britain, which has long had its virtues 
extolled, but, like those of Borage, they are imaginary. The 
young sprouts are sometimes blanched and used as 
Asparagus. 

Alkanet {Anchusa tinctoria). A strong growing peren- 
nial plant with pretty blue flowers, native of the South of 
Europe, and cultivated in many parts for its roots, which are 
imported from France and Germany. They yield a red dye, 
which is used for colouring oils, wax, salve, &c. 



THE NIGHTSHADE FAMILY. 



801 



Yipers Biigloss {Echium vulgare). A native of this 
country, generally growing on rocky cliffs near the sea. It 
is very showy, having spikes of purple red flowers. E. fastu- 
osum, E. giganteum,, and E. candicans, strong growing 
shrubby sp(;cies, natives of Madeira and the Canaries, with 
E. fruticosum and others, natives of the Cape of Good Hope, 
have been long cultivated in greenhouses. The well known 
Forget-me-not {Myosotis palustris) belongs to this family. 

In alliance with Boraginacece is Hydrophyllacece^ consist- 
ing of nearly 100 species, chiefly natives of temperate and 
tropical America. The principal part are herbaceous plants, 
and are represented in gardens by the genera Hydrophyllum^ 
Phacelia, Eutoca, and the pretty annual Nemophila insignis. 
Several are shrubby, and even spiny, as Hydrolea zeylanica^ 
a pretty blue-flowered shrub. Wigandia caraccasana, a 
large-leaved strong-growing plant, native of Caraccas, at- 
taining the height of 3 or 4 feet, has lately become an orna- 
mental garden plant. 

The Nightshade Family. 

(SOLANACE^.) 

Small trees, erect or trailing shrubs, frutlets, or perennial 
or annual shrubs. Leaves soft, alternate, simple, entire, or 
lobed, some winged. Flowers axillary, solitary, or in ter- 
minal cymes or racemes. Corolla tubular or spreading. 
Fruit a 2-valved or many-celled capsule, or a pulpy berry 
often included within a persistent calyx. 

This extensive family consists of above 900 species, distri- 
buted throughout all climates of both hemispheres, Solanum 
nigrum presenting itself near the arctic circle, as well as in 
high southern latitudes. The greater number are tropical, 
of which about one half belong to the genus Solanum. 
Although some in a prepared state are useful and wholesome, 
the whole family is more or less poisonous, many in the highest 
degree, as the Deadly nightshade. 

Potato {Solanum tuberosum). This well-known esculent is 



302 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



a native of Peru and Chili, and has also been found wild in 
Mexico. It was first introduced into Spain about the be- 
ginning of the sixteenth century, and into England from 
Virginia by Sir Walter lialeigh, in 1586. Gerarde, in his 
Herbal, published in 1597, gives a figure of a potato plant, 
which he had growing in his garden in Holborn (London), 
under the name of Batata virginiana. 

The cultivation of the potato spread very slowly. About 
1G33 it was encouraged by the Eoyal Society; but it was 
not until nearly a century had elapsed that it became plenti- 
ful, and was successfully cultivated in Scotland. It is sin- 
gular that in The Complete Gardener," published by 
London and Wise in 1719, the potato is not mentioned : 
and about the same time Bradley, an extensive writer on 
horticultural subjects, speaks of it as being inferior to 
skirrets and radishes. 

During the last hundred years, the cultivation of the 
potato has greatly increased in importance, especially in poor 
and densely populated districts. The ravages of a disease,* 
which first appeared in 1845, produced a famine, especially 
in Ireland, where potatoes had for years been almost the sole 
article of food with the poorer class. Since that period, and 
on account of this disease, the crop has been uncertain 
throughout all countries. 

Besides the usual culinary purposes for which potatoes are 
used, a large quantity of starch is manufactured from them, 
equal to arrow root, and used for many domestic purposes. 
It enters largely into the composition of the best wheaten 
bread, sometimes even to excess. From the starch is ob- 
tained a gum called Dextrine, which is used in the arts, and 
constitutes the adhesive matter used for letter stamps and 
envelopes. The potato yields by distillation a strong spirit, 
and by fermentation a wine is obtained ; the spirit in flavour 
resembles brandy. 

Egg-plant [Solarium melongena). A native of South 



* See page 102. 



THE NIGHTSHADE FAMILY. 



303 



America, and now spread over the tropics. It was intro- 
duced to Britain in 1597 ; it is a tender annual plant, culti- 
vated for curiosity ; its fruit resembles an egg. There are 
several varieties, varying in colour from white to red, yellow 
or dull purple, and in shape more or less round or oblong. 
It is much cultivated in France, as also a sort called Bringals, 
of which French cooks make great use for culinary purposes. 

Bitter-sweet {Solanum dulcamara). A slender-stemmed, 
straggling plant, growing abundantly in hedges, which in 
autumn it adorns with its bunches of beautiful red berries, 
that have the appearance of currants, and being sweet and * 
tempting are often eaten by children, to whom serious con- 
sequences have often occurred. It is recorded that thirty 
berries killed a dog in three hours. This circumstance 
shows the necessity of guarding children against them. 

A great number of virtues are ascribed to this plant even 
as far back as the time of Theophrastus, who called it vitis 
sylvestris. It is still in great repute amongst rustic as well 
as regular practitioners. 

Apple of Sodom {^Solanum sodomeum). A prickly species 
attaining the height of 2 or 3 feet, a native of Palestine, 
especially on the shores of the Dead Sea. It produces fruit 
like "faire apples," but when ripe is found to be full of dust 
like ashes, which is caused by an insect depositing its eggs in 
the young fruit, the larvge destroying- and pulverizing the 
whole of the inner part, leaving the rind entire and hard. 
This agrees with the description of the Apples of Sodom as 
given by Josephus and Tacitus, but it is more generally 
believed that the plant bearing the " faire apples" is the 
Colocynth., which see. 

Solarium anthropophagorum. A soft brushy shrub, attain- 
ing the height of 6 feet, having dark-green leaves similar to 
the Love Apple. It is a native of Fiji, where its fruit 
figures in the cannibal feasts of the natives. 

Chillies, or Guinea Pepper (Capsicum annuum). This 
originally came from India, but is now cultivated in all tro- 
pical regions. It is an annual plant, attaining the height 



804 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



of about 12 or 18 inches. It is too tender for successful 
out-door cultivation in this country, but succeeds well and 
produces fine fruit under glass. There are several varieties, 
their fruit varying in shape and colour, being either long or 
short podded, red or yellow. There are also some distinct 
species, such as Cherry Pepper {Capsicum cerasiforme)] Bird 
Pepper {C. haccatu?n)'^ Bell Pej^per (C. grossum); Spur 
Pepper (C. frutescens)^ a shrub — which are all, more or less, 
grown in different countries, and extensively used in 
cookery in hot climates, being considered beneficial in ex- 
citing the appetite. The dried fruit when ground constitutes 
Cayenne pepper. In this country they are greatly used as 
pickles, and in sauces. 

Tomato or Love Apple {Lycopersicam esculentum). An 
annual weak trailing plant with soft stem, winged leaves and 
yellow flowers. It is a native of South America, and is cul- 
tivated in most warm countries for the sake of its fruit. It 
succeeds best in this country when trained against walls. 
There are several varieties, bearing large red or sometimes 
yellow fruit, which is used for culinary purposes, the well- 
known sauce called tomata sauce being made from them. 

Wintev Chevrj (Phi/saUs Alkekengi). A perennial plant, 
native of the South of Europe, having fruit like a small 
cherry, which becomes enclosed in the enlarged leafy per- 
manent calyx ; in some parts the fruit is eaten, but is much 
surpassed by what is called the Cape Gooseberry {Physalis 
eduUs), a native of tropical America. It is a weak sub-erect 
plant with a soft stem ; its fruit has a very luscious flavour 
and is very enticing to eat. 

Mandrake {Mandragoi^a officinarum). A perennial plant, 
native of the South and East of Europe and Western Asia ; 
it has large tap roots, from which spring a number of simple 
lance-shaped leaves, the flowers being produced amongst 
them close to the stem and succeeded by the fruit, which 
lies on the ground round the centre of the plant ; it is hke 
the potato apple but larger. This plant is of ancient renown 
for virtues superstitiously founded on the resemblance of the 



/ THE NIGHTSHADE FAMILY. 805 

roots to the human figure. This idea of its virtues has pre- 
vailed since Reuben " found mandrakes in the field,"* but it 
is doubtful whether that was the same plant as the present. 
A few years ago two children were poisoned, it is said, by- 
eating mandrake roots, which they found in a field. But 
whatever was the cause of death, it could not be from the 
effects of Mandragora officinarum^ as it is not a native of this 
country. 

Stramonium' or Thorn Apple [Datura stramonium). A 
rude growing annual plant, having stiff spreading branches, 
attaining the height of 2 or 3 feet, and flourishing in 
rubbish heaps and waste ground. It has large oval leaves, 
entire or lobed, which are used for smoking as a remedy for 
asthma. It contains an alkali which is used medicinally, 
and a large prickly capsule that is prized for skeletonizing. 
Other species, such as D. fastuosa and D. Metel^ natives of 
India, also grow freely in this country and possess the 
same properties as Stramonium. It is supposed that the 
seeds of D. Stramonium have the effect of producing deli- 
rium, and are said to have been used by the priests of 
Apollo at Delphi to produce their ravings, which were 
called prophecies. They are also used by the Thugs or 
poisoners in India to carry on their nefarious practices, and 
in this country for drugging. 

Datura sanguinea is a soft-wooded shrub or small tree, 
having large orange-coloured tubular flowers which are very 
ornamental in the hothouses of this country. It is a native 
of Peru and parts of Central America. The Indians prepare 
a drink from the fruit (which is like the thorn apple) called 
Tonga, and by drinking it believe they are brought into 
communication with the spirits of their forefathers. In 
Darien a decoction of the seeds is given to children, which 
produces a state of excitement, and is supposed to give them 
the power of discovering gold ; the effects bring on exhaus- 
tion, and wherever they fall, digging for gold commences. 



* Genesis, chap. xxx. ver. 14 
X 



306 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Henbane {Hyoscyamns niger). An annual erect weedy- 
plant with soft broad leaves, growing both in cultivated and 
waste places. It is much valued in medicine, the chief pre- 
paration being an extract of the leaves, which is used in the 
place of opium; also by oculists for dilating the pupil of 
the eye. 

Tobacco {Nicotiana Tahaciini). The original country of 
this and other species producing tobacco is America, where 
its use was first discovered by Columbus in 1492, by whom 
on his return it was introduced into Spain, and by Sir Walter 
Raleigh into England in 1589. Although great objections 
to its use were raised by' kings and popes, it nevertheless 
spread over Europe and all countries of the East. Tobacco 
now constitutes a most important article of commerce, being 
imported into England from various countries under different 
names and qualities. The great bulk comes from the United 
States, where it forms one of the chief articles of cultivation 
(till recently by slaves). The word Tobacco is said to be 
derived from the original name of the pipe used by the Carib 
Indians for smoking it. It is a handsome growing plant, 
attaining the height of from 4 to 6 feet, having broad, oblong 
or sharp leaves, and pretty pink, tubular or bell-shaped 
flowers. It grows freely in this country, but on account of 
excise restrictions is not cultivated to any extent. 

The different methods of manufacturing and using Tobacco 
are too well known to be noticed here. Various kinds of 
snuff are made from the leaves first being dried and then 
ground to powder. No plant is of more extensive use, and it 
is calculated that one man out of every four uses it. 

Deadly Nightshade {Ati^opa Belladonna). A strong grow- 
ing perennial plant, native of this country and throughout 
Europe. It attains the height of about 3 feet, having broad 
oval leaves and solitary flowers of a brownish yellow colour, 
which are succeeded by a black-berried fruit, closely seated 
on the wide-spreading calyx ; it is about the size of a small 
cherry, and when ripe has a glistening and enticing appear- 
ance and sweetish taste, but is extremely poisonous, fatal 



THE SEE EST RN FAMILY. 



807 



accidents having occurred through its being ignorantly sold, 
even in the streets of London, for blackberries. The whole 
plant is poisonous, but is a useful and powerful medicine when 
properly used. Like henbane, it has the power of dilating 
the pupil of the eye. It is also called Dwal, and in olden times 
Dwal water was a favourite wash with ladies for removing 
freckles, hence its name " Belladonna," meaning Fair Lady. 

Box Thorn {Lycium barbarum). A twiggy rambling shrub 
of rapid growth, native of countries bordering on the Medi- 
terranean. It is often seen covering arbours in cottage 
gardens in this country. Its leaves resemble those of the 
Chinese tea tree, which led to its' being brought into notice 
about one hundred years ago by the then Duke of Argyle as 
a substitute for tea, for which reason it received the name of 
the Duke of Argyle's tea tree. 

(NOLANACEiE.) 

This family consists of about thirty species, natives of 
South America, chiefly Chili. They were originally consi- 
dered to belong to Solanacese, from which they have been 
separated on account of their plaited corolla, and in having 
5 or more distinct carpels united to a single pistil. The 
principal representatives of the family are Nolana prostrata 
and N. paradoxa^ pretty garden annuals, with blue and 
yellow flowers ; also Alona coslestis, a frutlet with showy 
pale blue flowers. They possess no special properties. 

The Sebesten Family. 

(CORDIACE^.) 

Hard-wodded trees or shrubs, having simple alternate 
generally rough leaves. Flowers usually in more or less 
one-sided panicles, cymes, or spike-like. Corolla 5 -cleft, the 
lobes imbricate. Fruit a drupe with 4 or more cells. 

Nearly 200 species are enumerated as belonging to this 
family, chiefly natives of tropical countries. A few only an 

x3 



308 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



known to be of any special utility, being chiefly used as hard 
woods. 

Si3anisli Elm {Cordia Gerascanthus). An erect branched 
tree of considerable size, native of the West Indies. It yields 
serviceable timber. 

Sebestens. The name given in India to the fruits of 
Cordia Myxa and C. latifolia^ which are eaten, and also used 
medicinally. 

Anacahuite Wood {Cordia Boissieri). A tree, native of 
Mexico, the wood of which has been lately imported to this 
country as well as into Germany, and was once supposed to 
be a remedy for consumption. 

About 300 species have been separated from Cordiaces, as 
a distinct family, under the name of Ehretiacece, They consist 
of small trees or shrubs, few of which are of any interest, 
except the well-known garden Heliotropium peruvianwn^ 
which, on account of its scent, is known by the name of 
*' Cherry pie," 

The genus is represented in Europe by Turnsole, H. euro- 
p(£um, Tournefortia vohihilis, T. cymosa, and T. humilis, 
flowering shrubs, natives of the West Indies and tropical 
America. They have long been inmates of the hothouses at 
Kew. 

THE GENTIAN AND NUX- VOMICA ALLIANCE. 
The Gentian Family. 

(Gentianace^.) 

Annual or perennial herbs, floating aquatics, or soft, rarely 
hard-stemmed, frutlets. Leaves simple, rarely trifoliate, 
opposite, sessile, more or less sheathing and embracing the 
stem, generally with several prominent ribs running from 
the base to the apex ; in the aquatics round and peltate. 
Flowers axillary, in tufts, or terminal spikes ; or in fcAv- 
flowered panicles, rarely solitary; generally showy, blue, 
white, yellow, red, or even black. Corolla tubular. Fruit 



THE GENTIAN FAMILY. 



.309 



a 2-valved capsule, the margins of the valves turned inwards, 
containing numerous seeds, rarely a berry. 

This interesting family consists of nearly 500 species, all 
widely spread over the earth, extending to the limits of 
vegetable life in the polar regions, and to the verge of per- 
petual snow and glaciers in elevated regions. They are also 
found in moist places in tropical countries. They contain a 
bitter principle, and most of them are used as tonic medicine 
in their different localities. 

Gentian. This genus consists of a considerable number 
of species, many of which are favourites in gardens, such as 
the well known Gentianella {Gentiana accmlis), a native of 
the Alps, also said to be found wild in Wales. But the most 
important is G. lutea, a native of Switzerland. It is a showy 
growing species, with an erect leafy flower stem, attaining 
the height of 2 or 3 feet. The leaves are broad and strongly 
veined. Flowers yellow, axillary in tufts. The roots are 
strong, about the thickness of the finger, and highly valued 
as a tonic. Six species of the genus are natives of this 
country, three being annuals. 

Chirata [Ophelia Gliirata and 0. elegans). Slender-branched 
annual plants, 2 to 3 feet high, with yellow flowers, natives 
of India, where the stems are held in high repute as a tonic 
and febrifuge, both by native and European practitioners. 

Buck Bean [Menyanthes trifoliatd). One of our most 
beautiful native plants, growing abundantly in marshy 
places, and by the sides of streams. It possesses strong 
medicinal properties, the leaves being extremely bitter. An 
infusion of them is a favourite domestic remedy in rheuma- 
tism, and is employed by regular practitioners in fevers. 
They have been used as a substitute for hops ; but they give 
bitterness without the aroma of the hop. Another equally 
interesting native plant is Villarsia nymphoeoides^ which grows 
in ditches and ponds. It has long stalked, floating, peltate 
leaves, and pretty yellow flowers rising above the water. 

Several species of Lisianthus^ natives of the West Indies 
and Tropical America, have been introduced. L. Russel- 



310 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Nanus is very showy, having large light blue spreading 
flowers. Allied to the preceding is the small family {Diapen- 
sacece). It consists of three known species represented by 
Diapensis lapponica, native of Lapland, and Pijxidanthera 
harhulata of North America. Small prostrate frutlets of 
the habit of small leaved Saxifrnga^ having solitary, pretty, 
white or pink bell-shaped flowers ; they are only interesting 
botanically. 

The Nux- Vomica Family. 

(Strychnace^.) 

Small trees or shrubs, rarely herbs. Leaves opposite, 
simple, with sheathing stipules, sometimes united to the 
petioles. Flowers solitary, spiked, or in racemes. Corolla 
regular or irregular, inconspicuous, or large and showy, 
stamens in some 4. Fruit a 2-celled capsule or berry, or 
with a hard shell (pepo-like) with the seeds immersed in 
pulp. 

This family consists of nearly 200 species, all widely dis- 
tributed throughout tropical countries, a few extending 
beyond. They exhibit extreme differences in habit and 
appearance ; some contain a most deadly poison. 

Worm Grass or Pink Eoot {Spigelia marilandica and 
S. Anthelmia). Pretty herbaceous plants about a foot in 
height, having spikes of pink flowers. Their roots are 
powerful purgatives, and were at one time much used as 
worm medicines. 

Nux-vomica {Strychnos Nux-vomica). A small, strag- 
gling, branched tree, native of India. It has opposite sessile 
leaves that have several strongly marked veins running from 
the base to the apex. The flowers are small, and the fruit 
resembles an orange, but has a hard rind and contains nume- 
rous round, flat seeds like broad beans, embedded in pulp, 
and when dry have a covering of w^hite silky hairs. The 
kernels of these seeds contain two most deadly poisons, 
Strychnine and Brucine ; but the pulp is wholesome. The 
bark and roots are extremely bitter, and are favourite 



THE NUX- VOMICA FAMILY, 



311 



remedies amongst the natives for snake bites, and are also 
used in fevers. 

Strychnos toxifera. A native of British Guiana and upper 
regions of the Orinoco. It is similar in habit to the last, 
but has larger leaves. The famous arrow poison of the 
natives called " Ourari, Wourali, and Curarie," is obtained 
from the bark and alburnum, which is stripped off and 
macerated in water. After lying some time the water is 
evaporated, when a black sediment resembling tar is left. 
This substance is harmless when eaten, but is fatal when it 
comes in contact with the blood through wounds. The flesh 
of animals poisoned by it is nevertheless perfectly wholesome. 

Clearing Nut {Strychnos potatorum). A small tree, native 
of India. It has hard wood which is used for various 
economic purposes ; but it is most remarkable for its fruity 
which is black, about the size of a cherry, and contains one 
seed. The seeds are dried, and then used to clear muddy 
water, which is effected by rubbing one of them round the 
vessel that is to contain the water, which, being then poured 
in, quickly becomes clear. 

Snake-wood (^Strychnos colubrina). A native of India, 
Java, and other islands. In Malabar it furnishes the wood 
called snake-wood. It is in great repute as a remedy for the 
bites of snakes, and in skin diseases. 

The genus Fagrcea consists of soft-wooded trees of a 
shrub-like, epiphytal nature, having angular branches and 
thick, laurel-like leaves, with a sheathing attachment. They 
are natives of India, the Malay and other islands, and are 
ornamental plants, some of them having showy flowers. Six 
species have been cultivated at Kew. 

Fagrcea Berteroana is a hard, white-wooded tree, native of 
Fiji, having thick, fleshy flowers which are higlily odori- 
ferous, and used by the natives, when fresh, for scenting 
cocoa-nut oil ; when dry they are made into necklaces. 



312 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



f I •[• Corolla regular; stamens 2, 4, 8, 16, or 5, 10. 
THE HOLLY, JASMINE, AND EBONY ALLIANCE. 
The Aderno-tree Family. 

(Myrsinace^.) 

Evergreen shrubs or small trees with alternate simple, 
firm, smooth, entire, or spiny leaves, often with transparent 
dots. Flowers in lateral spikes or loose umbels. Corolla 
generally of a firm texture and dotted. Fruit a hard firm 
berry. 

About 320 species are enumerated as belonging to this 
family. They are widely distributed, abounding in the 
Islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans, extending to New 
Zealand, and also found in Madeira and the Azores. None 
are natives of Europe. They possess no special medicinal 
qualities, but many are ornamental as hothouse and green- 
house plants. 

Aderno tree [Ai'disia excelsa). A small sized hard-wooded 
tree, native of Madeira. It forms a bushy head with shining 
laurel-like leaves, but it is of slow growth, a plant at Kew, 
fully seventy years of age, having attained the height of only 
8 feet. In cultivation, A. ci^enata forms a small bush 2 to 3 
feet high ; it has shining green leaves, and bears a profusion 
of red coral-hke berries, which give it an ornamental appear- 
ance in greenhouses. A. paniculata, A. solanacea, A. humilis, 
and A. hymenandra are also ornamental species. 

Jacquinia armillaris, a native of the West Indies, and 
J. aurantiaca of the Sandwich Islands, have been long known 
in this country as pretty shrubs. In the West Indies the 
first is called Bracelet-wood, its hard berries being used for 
making bracelets. 

Theophrasta Jussicei. An erect single-stemmed shrub or 
small tree, native of St. Domingo, having rigid spiny leaves 
2 feet in length and about 2 inches broad, their edges being 
prickly like Holly leaves. The flowers are bell-shaped, of 
a brownish colour, and on first opening emit a peculiar 



THE HOLLY FAMILY. 



313 



mawkish odour. The plant is rare in this country, and is of 
slow growth, one at Kew 40 years old has attained the height 
of only 7 feet. 

Myrsine africana^ a native of Eastern and South Africa ; 
M. retusa, of the Azores, where it is called Jamassa ; they 
form handsome greenhouse shrubs, and live to a great age. 

The Holly Family. 

(Aquifoliace^ ) 

Trees or shrubs, with alternate generally permanent, often 
spiny leaves. Flowers small, solitary or in clusters, gene- 
rally axillary, sometimes dioecious, sessile or on short pedun- 
cles. Corolla 4-lobed. Stamens 4 or 6. Fruit a fleshy 
berry, containing several hard seeds. 

This family consists of above 100 species, all widely dis- 
tributed, both in tropical and temperate countries, being 
represented in Europe by the well known Holly tree. 

Holly (Ilex Aquifoliwn). The common green-leaved Holly 
is a native of middle and southern Europe, as also of this 
country. It 'sometimes attains the height of 30 or 40 feet, 
and has white wood, which is hold in repute by cabinet- 
makers and turners. It is often blackened so as to resemble 
ebony, and is then used for making teapot and knife and fork 
handles. Common birdlime is made from its bark. It is 
much planted as an ornamental tree, as well as for forming 
hedges, the numerous gold- and silver-leaved varieties being 
obtained by cultivation. Although its berries afford abun- 
dance of food for birds, they are nevertheless poisonous, 
fatal cases having been recorded through children eating 
them. The nse made of Holly and other evergreens for 
ornamenting churches and dwelling houses at Christmas is 
well known, but the origin is uncertain ; it is said to have 
been practised by the Druids. It was a custom with the 
Eomans to send sprigs of Holly with their gifts to their 
friends during the Saturnalia as an emblem of good wishes. 
This was adopted by the early Christians, and the first 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



record of its having been practised in England, is in the 
reign of Henry VI. 

Paraguay Tea or Yerba {Ilex paraguayensis). A small tree 
with plain or toothed leaves, native of South Brazil, in the 
countries of the Parana and Paraguay rivers. The leaves are 
scorched and pounded, and become the tea which forms 
an important article of trade in South America, taking 
the place of Chinese tea, as used in other countries. It is 
infused in the same manner, but is drunk in a different way, 
being sucked through a tube, and is extremely refreshing 
after fatigue. Mate is the name of a small gourd, which 
forms the drinking cup. 

Black drink of the Indians {Ilex vomitorid). This plant is 
in great repute, and is reckoned a holy plant by the North 
American Indians. Of the leaves slightly scorched they 
make the black drink used during their religious rites and 
solemn councils to clear the head and stomach. 

The Star Apple Family. 

(SAPOTACEiE.) 

Trees or shrubs with alternate, simple, smooth, firm 
leaves, containing a milky juice. Flowers axillary. Corolla 
variously lobed. Calyx persistent. Stamens variable. 
Fruit a fleshy drupe, generally containing 1 or more hard 
smooth-shelled seeds, with a scar on one side. 

This family consists of above 200 species, all widely dis- 
tributed throughout the tropical regions. They are of great 
importance for their fruit, as well as for a milky juice, which 
furnishes gutta percha. 

Star apple {Chrysophyllum Cainito). A tree from 30 to 
40 feet high, native of the West Indies. It has spreading 
branches, and beautifully veined leaves of a silvery white on 
the under side. The fruit is about the size of an apple, and 
is wholesome, having an agreeable sweet flavour ; it consists 
of ten cells, each containing a single seed, and when cut 
across (before the seeds harden), has a star-like appearance? 



THE STAR APPLE FAMILY. 



315 



whence its name. It is an ornamental plant in green- 
houses. 

Sapodilla Plum (Achras sapota). A large tree, native of 
the West Indies, where, as well as throughout all parts of 
tropical America, it is cultivated for its fruit, which is consi- 
dered to be only inferior to an orange ; it is about the size of a 
Bergamot Pear, and is not fit for eating until it begins to decay. 

Achras (Lucuma) mammosa. A large tree, native of the 
West Indies and tropical America. Its fruit is from 3 to 5 
inches long, and pulpy. It is sometimes called marmalade, 
from its resembling that substance in taste and appearance. 

The two last-mentioned are also known by the name of 
Bully Trees, and are cultivated in the Mauritius, and other 
parts of the east. 

Cainito (^Lucuma cainito and L. obovato). Large trees, 
natives of North Chili and Peru ; but there are some doubts 
whether they are distinct species. The fruit is not so large as 
that of the preceding, but of a more agreeable flavour, and is 
much esteemed in Peru. L. obovato has fruited at Kew. 

Gutta Percha (Isonandra gutta). A tree attaining the 
height of from 60 to 70 feet. It has smooth ovate entire 
leaves, of a rusty brown colour on the under side. It is a 
native of the Malayan Peninsula, Borneo, and other islands. 
It contains milky juice, which forms gutta percha. This 
substance came into special notice in 1845, and its important 
uses soon becoming obvious led to a great demand for the 
article, to meet which the natives cut down the trees. It is 
consequently now extinct in Singapore, from whence it was 
first obtained; and if precaution is not taken by Govern- 
ment, it will in time become extinct in other localities. 

The numerous uses to which gutta percha is applied are 
well known ; the most important is for covering the electric 
wires of telegraph cables, it being a perfect insulator, and 
also said to be indestructible under water. 

A number of other trees of this family yield gutta percha 
in varying abundance and quality. The best is obtained 
from Sapota Mulleri^ a large tree, native of British Guiana, 



316 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



and apparently also of Surinam, and called Ballata. It is 
imported in large quantities from that colony, and considered 
equal to the best gutta percha of the east. 

A tree called Massaranduba,^^ or Cow Tree of Para 
(^Mimusops alata), is probably of this family. It is described 
as a lofty tree, attaining the height of 100 feet; and on inci- 
sions being made in the bark, a milky juice flows most copi- 
ously from it ; it is about the consistence of thick cream, from 
which, but for a slight peculiar flavour, it can scarcely be dis- 
tinguished. By exposure to the air it thickens, and forms an 
adhesive glue, something like gutta percha. The fruit is about 
the size of an apple, very juicy, and is sold in the markets 
of Para. The timber is very hard, and used for many pur- 
poses. 

Black Bully Tree {BumeUa nigra). A large tree, native 
of Jamaica, and indio;enous in Barbadoes. The fruit has an 
agreeable flavour. 

Argan Tree {Argania sideroxylon). A low, spreading 
tree, of a shrubby nature, often growing as a bush, having 
very small leaves. It is a native of Morocco, and western 
parts of North Africa. The fruit is about the size of a small 
Orleans plum, and is so abundant that it is collected and 
used for feeding cattle, the skin and pulp being much re- 
lished ; but in chewing the cud they eject the hard kernels, 
which are collected and crushed, when an oil is obtained 
from them. 

Butter Tree {Bassia hutyracea). A middle-sized tree, 
native of Nepaul, and other parts of India. By pressure the 
seeds yield an oil of a fatty nature, which thickens and be- 
comes like lard ; it is used for culinary purposes, also for 
making soap, and by the natives of rank as an unction. It 
is also known by the name of " Chooree," and forms a con- 
siderable article of trade. The flowers abound in honey, 
scarcely differing in the raw state from hive honey, except 
that it is more limpid. It is manufactured into sugar, in 
every respect equal to that of the sugarcane. 

Bassia latifolia. A native of Bengal, and other parts of 



THE EBONY FAMILY. 



817 



India. Like the preceding the seeds yield a fatty substance, 
called Ghee, used as butter. An ardent spirit similar to 
whisky is distilled from the flowers, which has proved as 
injurious to European soldiers as the new rum of the West 
Indies. They are eaten raw by the natives in the district of 
Circars, and are also dried and preserved, forming a consi- 
derable article of food. 

Shea, or Butter Tree of Africa (Bassia Parkii). A tree, 
native of West tropical Africa. It attains the height of from 
60 to 90 feet, and a diameter of from 6 to 9 feet. The leaves 
are large and bright green ; the fruit is about the size of a 
peach, but more oblong, consisting of sweet pulp containing 
a bony seed. with a kernel, which after being separated from 
the shell is pounded and boiled, when a fatty substance 
swims on the top of the water, which is skimmed ofl", and 
when cold resembles butter. It was first brought into notice 
by Mungo Park, who found the trees abundant in the king- 
dom of Bambarra. It is a great article of trade with the 
natives, and forms an important part of their food. Shea 
butter has the consistence of tallow, is of a pale lemon 
colour, and has an aromatic taste. It is expected that when 
the interior of Africa is more open, it will become an article 
of trade to this country. 

The Ebony Family. 

(Ebenace^e.) 

Trees or shrubs, with alternate, simple, entire, generally 
firm leaves. Flowers mostly axillary and solitary ; unisexual 
or bisexual. Corolla urceolate, 4-dentate or cleft. Fruit 
pulpy, round or oblong, drupe-like ; generally few- seeded. 

About 160 species are enumerated as belonging to this 
family, the principal being found within the tropics, chiefly 
in the eastern hemisphere ; represented in Europe and North 
America by Diospyros. 

Date Plum (^Diospyros Lotus). A low-growing tree, native 
of the South of Europe. It produces a small drupe, which is 



3J8 DOMESTIC BOTANY. 

supposed to be one of the fruits eaten by the people called 
Lotophagi. 

Persimmon or American Date Plum (^Diosj)yros virginiand). 
A tree, native of the United States. It attains the height of 
50 or 60 feet, and has rough corky bark, and unisexual or 
bisexual flowers. The fruit is nearly round, about an inch 
in diameter, and of a yellowish orange colour; it is very 
austere, but after being frosted is eatable. They are pounded 
and made into cakes from Avhich a kind of beer is prepared, 
and a spirit is obtained by fermentation and distillation. 
The tree is rare in this country. One 40 feet high and one 
hundred years old may be seen at Kew, which in some 
seasons produces fruit. 

Chinese Date (^Diospyros Kaki). A tree, native of China 
and Japan, where as well as in India it is cultivated for the 
sake of its fruit, which is about the size of a small apple ; it 
is said to be delicious, and is made into a preserve. It has 
been introduced into Egypt, whence it is called Lotus tree. 
It has fruited at Kew. 

Ebony. This is furnished by several sjjecies of Diospyros ; 
Ceylon ebony by D. Ehenum ; Indian ebony by D. Ebenaster 
and D. melanoxylon ; the best, however, comes from the 
Mauritius, and is the produce of D. reticulata. They are 
large but slow growing trees with firm dark-coloured leaves. 
With age the wood becomes hard and black and is then known 
as ebony. Ebony is mentioned in the Bible* as an article 
of merchandize obtained probably from Ceylon. 

Calamander Wood (^Diospyros qucesita). A large tree, 
native of Ceylon, having beautiful hard wood much prized 
for making boxes and other ornamental articles. 

Mabola [Diospyros mahola). A native of the Philippine 
Islands, and commonly cultivated in many Islands of the 
East ; it has also been introduced into the West Indies. It 
is a middle sized tree, having large firm coriaceous leaves of 
a light colour. The fruit is like a large quince, and in some 
places is often called Mangosteen ; its flavour is agreeable. 

* Ezekiel, chap, xxvii. ver. 15. 



THE OLIVE FAMILY. 



319 



The femily is represented in New South Wales by Car- 
gillia australis and C. arhorea^ hard-wooded trees, the latter 
attaining the height of nearly 100 feet ; the fruit is called the 
grey plum, but is not very palatable. Different species of 
Royena represent the family in South Africa. 

The Olive Family. 

(Oleace^.) 

Lofty, or middle-sized trees or shrubs, generally much 
branched, the young branches flat or angular. Leaves 
opposite, simple or winged. Flowers rarely unisexual. 
Corolla 4-lobed or cleft ; sometimes absent. Stamens gene- 
rally 2. Fruit a drupe as in olive ; a dry capsule as in 
Syringa, or a winged samar as in Fraxinus. 

This family consists of nearly 150 species, all widely dis- 
tributed over the temperate regions chiefly in the northern 
hemisphere, where they are represented by Fraxinus (Ash), 
Olea (Olive), Syringa (Lilac), Phillyreas and Ligustrwn 
(Privet) ; the latter the only one of the family native of 
this country ; and in the southern hemisphere by Notelea and 
Olea, and in North America by the beautiful shrub Fringe- 
flower {Chionantlius virginica). 

Olive {Olea europea). Although this receives the specific 
name of europea, yet it is doubtful whether it was originally 
native of Europe, but it is well known to be a native of 
Western Asia. It is a small shrub-like branching evergreen 
tree, somewhat spiny, having smooth or slightly hoary, stiff 
leaves about the size and shape of tea-leaves, producing in 
their axis tufts of small Avhite flowers, followed by an oblong 
drupe or berry-Hke fruit. It is a very long-lived tree, 
growing in the most barren, dry places, and is extensively 
cultivated in all countries bordering on the Mediterranean. 
Ohve oil is obtained by expression from the pulp of the fruit, 
and is imported to this country from Italy and other ports 
of the Mediterranean. Salad or Florence oil comes in flasks 
enclosed in wicker-work. The unripe fruits are pickled. 



320 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



The oil produced from tlae olive plantations of Palestine 
formed a lucrative article of trade with the Tyrians. In 
1 Kings* it is stated that Solomon gave Hiram, King of Tyre, 
" twenty measures of pure oil." In the present day Hebron 
is celebrated for its olive orchards. Recent travellers 
describe seven olive trees as growing at Gethsemane which, 
judging from their description, is suiBcient to warrant the 
supposition that they were trees at the time Christ " went as 
He was wont to the Mount of Olives." One of the chief 
trades with Jerusalem in the present day consists of chaplets 
and small toy articles, many of which are made of olive 
wood. A branch of olive is considered an emblem of peace. 

Manna, or Flowering Ash {Fraxinus ornus). A much 
branched tree, native of the South of Europe and Palestine. 
It attains the height of 25 or 30 feet, and produces spikes of 
pretty white flowers, the narrow petals and stamens giving 
it a fringe-like appearance. It yields the substance called 
manna, which is obtained by making incisions in the bark, 
when the juice exudes and hardens. 

The tree is cultivated in the south of Italy and Sicily, 
from whence manna is imported, and is used as a mild 
purgative. In this country it forms an ornamental tree. 

Ash {Fraxinus excelsior). This noble and valuable timber 
tree is native throughout Europe, some parts of Western 
Asia and North Africa. It lives to a great age, and is 
extensively planted in this country for its timber, which, on 
account of its hardness and toughness, is used for aU pur- 
poses where tenacity is required, such as garden and agricul- 
tural implements, also when young for making hoops. 

Fraxinus chinensis. A small tree, native of China ; it is 
remarkable from a species of Coccus insect living on it, and 
being so abundant on the branches as to give them the ap- 
pearance of being covered with flakes of snow. The insect 
perforates the bark and imbibes the juice of the tree, its body 
as well as the branch of the tree becoming a waxy mass, which 



* Chap. V. ver. 11. 



THE JASMINE FAMILY. 



321 



is scraped off, and after boiling, forms a wax like beeswax or 
spermaceti. It has been imported to this country, but is too 
expensive for common use. Several shrubs of this family 
are said to produce this wax. 

Wax Tree (Ligustrum lucidum). A small tree or hand- 
some shrub, hardy in this country. It is a native of China. 
An insect that deposits a wax is said to feed on it. This is 
well known to be the case with L. Ibota, a native of Japan, 
which is cultivated for that purpose. 

Tasmanian Iron-wood Tree (Notelcea ligustrind). A native 
of New South Wales, Victoria, and Tasmania. This gene- 
rally forms a tree 30 or more feet in height, with a trunk 
sometimes a foot or more in diameter, but is often seen as a 
bush. Its wood is very hard, and is used for making ship 
blocks and for other purposes where hardness is required. 
It is nearly hardy in this country. 

Lecnociera ligustrina. A tree, 40 feet high, native of 
Jamaica; by some called Jamaica rosewood. The wood is 
very hard and fragrant, and is excellent timber. 

The Jasmine Family. 

(Jasminace^.) 

Erect trailing or twining shrubs. Leaves opposite or alter- 
nate winged, or simple, with a joint in the petiole. Flowers 
axillary or in terminal umbel-like tufts, yellow or white. 
Corolla spreading, 5 or 8-lobed. Stamens 2. Pistil bifid. 
Fruit binate, berry-like, as in Jasminum ; or a 2-celled dry 
capsule, as in Nyctanthes. 

This was originally considered to be a part of Oleaceae, 
but on account of a slight difference in the structure of the 
corolla and seed, modern botanists have thought proper 
to make a separate family of it. The number of species 
amount to 100 or more, and are widely distributed, different 
species of Jasminum being natiyes of Europe, India, China, 
and Australia. 

Jasmine {Jasminum officinale). The native country of the 
Y 



322 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



white Jasmine is said to be India, but it is now wild through- 
out many parts of Southern Europe, and is well known in 
this country for forming arbours, its SAveet-scented flowers 
causing it to be a great favourite. Oil of Jasmine is obtained 
by soaking cotton in oil of Ben, and placing flowers of Jas- 
mine amongst it, and after lying for some time the oil is 
pressed out having the odour of Jasmine. 

Jasminum Samhac, J. azonmm^ as well as several simple- 
leaved species from India, and two from Australia, are orna- 
mental creepers in the hothouses of this country, while J. nudi- 
jlorum and J. revolutum are hardy wall shrubs, the yellow 
flowers of the former being conspicaous in early spring. 

The Snowdrop Tree Family. 

(Styrace^.) 

Small trees or shrubs, with alternate, simple deciduous 
leaves. Flowers white, axillary solitary or several together, 
generally pendulous on long footstalks furnished with small 
bracts. Stamens irregular in number, sometimes partially 
united. Fruit drupaceous, or dry and winged. 

About 115 species constitute this family, which are widely 
spread, chiefly within the tropics of India and America. 

Snowdrop Tree (Halesia tetrapterd). A wide-spreading 
branching tree, attaining the height of from 20 to 30 feet, 
native of North America. It produces a profusion of pen- 
dulous white flowers like snowdrops, which render it a highly 
ornamental tree. 

Storax {Styrax officinale). A small tree, or sometimes 
shrub, native of Levantine countries. By incisions the bark 
yields the gum called gum storax, which is well known as a 
perfume, and is used as incense in Eoman Catholic churches. 
It grows abundantly in Palestine, and is considered by some 
commentators to be the Poplar rod of Jacob, but its nature 
of growth is such that its branches can scarcely be called rods. 

Benzoin (Styrax benzoin). A tree, native of Sumatra and 
other Malayan Islands. Gum benzoin is obtained by incisions 



THE HEATH FAMILY. 



323 



made in tlie bark. This is a highly valued perfume, and is also 
used as incense, and as a medicine for pulmonary complaints. 

Styrax punctatum. A tree, native of Veraguas in Central 
America. It yields a gum, which is obtained after the tree 
is cut down and allowed to remain several years on the 
ground, when the external part of its wood is removed, and 
the gum resin found collected in greater or smaller masses. 
It is used as frankincense. 

Symplocos racemosa. A small tree, about 20 feet high, 
native of several parts of India. The bark is used with mun- 
jeeth for dyeing. It is called Lodh Bark. The leaves of most 
species of Symplocos turn yellow with age ; S. tinctoria, 
native of Georgia and Carolina, is used for dyeing yellow. 
S. Alstonia, a branching tree growing 10 or 12 feet high, 
native of New Grenada, very much resembles the Chinese 
Tea Plant ; it has been long used for that article, and is 
considered to have medicinal virtues. 

1 I f Corolla regular. Stamens hypogynous (Ericacece) 
or perigynous (JEpacridacece) . 

THE HEATH, EPACRIS AND WINTEK-GEEEN 
ALLIANCE. 

The Heath ramily. 

(Ericaceae.) 

Trees or shrubs, varying considerably in appearance. 
Leaves simple, alternate, opposite or whorled, small and 
needle-like, as in Heaths ; or large and broad, as in Rhodo- 
dendron. Flowers solitary, or in erect or pendulous spikes, 
racemes or umbels. Corolla tubular, urceolate, campanulate, 
or wide and spreading ; toothed, lobed, or deeply cleft, as to 
be almost polypetalous ; the lobes sometimes unequal. 
Stamens 5, 8, or 10 hypogynous ; anthers opening generally 
by a pore in their apex. Fruit a 5 or more celled dry capsule; 
or fleshy and berry-like. 

This interesting family consists of nearly 900 species, all 
y2 



824 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



widely distributed over the earth, the genus Erica, of which 
there are 380 species, forming a feature in the Flora of South 
Africa, as well as throughout Europe and the North of Asia ; 
the genus Rhododendron occupying a considerable extent in 
the Himalaya and elevated regions of the Malayan Archi- 
pelago, as also in China, Japan, and North America. In the 
Andean regions of tropical America, Befaria and Andromeda 
represent the family ; and in Australia and Tasmania, Gaul- 
theria, A narcotic and poisonous principle pervades this 
family. 

Heather Ling (Erica vulgaris). This is the common Heath 
which covers extensive tracts of hills and moors in this country, 
especially in Scotland, It has no special use except for making 
heather brooms, thatch, and the like ; the flowers afford ex- 
cellent honey, and beehives are often carried from the low 
country to the Heath localities during the flowering season. 

Cape Heaths. At one time the botanical collections in 
this country contained nearly 200 species of Heaths, but new 
varieties having been raised by hybridising, which have be- 
come popular show plants, the less showy species have been 
neglected. 

The genus Rhododendron consists of a great number of 
species, varying considerably in habit and size, some being 
trees with large broad leaves, others trailing, partially epi- 
phytal shrubs, and others heath-like. All have showy, and 
many of them splendid flowers. 

Rose Tree (Rhododendron ponticum and R. maxima). The 
first is a native of Western Asia and the latter of North 
America, both having been introduced into this country 
more than one hundred years ago. They are now superseded 
by numerous fine varieties raised in this country, and of late 
years a great number of allied species of the same habit of 
growth have been introduced fi:om Sikkim, Bhootan, Java, 
&c. But few of them are of sufficient hardiness to bear the 
open air of this climate. Amongst the Sikkim species are 
many that form trees of considerable size, of which the 
R. arboreum is the original type ; it is a native of Nepal, and 



THE HEATH FAMILY. 



325 



■was introduced in 1818 ; there are now two fine plants of it at 
Kew. It is not quite hardy in the neighbourhood of London, 
but is so in Cornwall and J ersey ; it has a spl endid appear- 
ance when in blossom, and the scarlet flowers contain a 
quantity of honey, which in its native country is made into 
jelly. Others of the Sikkim species attain a large size, even 
to the height of 40 feet. 

Azaleas, Yellow Azalea (Azalea pontica). A native of 
Pontus in Asia Minor, and first introduced to this country 
about seventy years ago ; the original plant is still growing at 
Kew. Its flowers are fragrant, but are, as well as the leaves 
and honey, of a poisonous nature. It is believed that the 
honey from this plant was the cause of the illness of the 
Greek soldiers in the retreat of the ten thousand. The white 
and red Azalea {A. indica) is a native of China. They live in 
the open air in this country, but make a poor appearance 
compared with the splendid specimens grown in the green- 
house, and as seen at horticultural flower-shows. 

Kalmia latifolia. A native of North America, is a beau- 
tiful flowering hardy evergreen shrub. In its native country 
the honey from its flowers is poisonous, and the flesh of game 
feeding on the berries is also poisonous. In 1790, great 
mortality took place at Philadelphia, ascertained to be 
caused by eating honey from, and game that fed on Kalmia 
berries, which led to a pubhc proclamation prohibiting the 
use of either honey or game. 

Andromeda.. A beautiful genus of evergreen shrubs ; 
several species, natives of North America, form ornamental 
bushes in this country. A. polifolia^ a native of, and abun- 
dant in bogs in the north of England and Scotland, is said to 
be poisonous to sheep. 

Strawberry Tree {Arbutus Unedo). A native of Southern 
Europe and North Africa, and is much cultivated in this 
country as an ornamental shrub. The fruit, when ripe, re- 
sembles the Strawberry, but is not very palatable. Eat one, 
as the word unedo implies, and it will be enough. In severe 
winters it is often killed to the ground. It has become 



826 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



naturalized about the lakes of Killarney in Ireland, where it 
attains the size of a small tree, one having been measured 9^ 
inches in diameter. 

Shallon (Gaultheria shallon). A native of North -West 
America. It is a low evergreen shrub, a foot or more in 
height, having round leaves, and by its running under- 
ground shoots covering a considerable extent of ground. It 
generally grows in Pine forests, and produces an immense 
number of purple berries, which are made by the natives 
into bread. A smaller species, G. procumbens, is also a 
native of North America, and grows like the preceding. Its 
calyx becomes a fleshy berry, and affords food for game. In 
the United States it is called Partridge-berry, as also Winter- 
green. It has a peculiar spicy and aromatic odour, and has 
been used as a substitute for tea. The odour is due to a 
volatile oil which is obtained by distillation, called Winter- 
green oil, and is used medicinally as a stimulant. 

Bear-berry (^Arbutus uva-ursi). A low trailing evergreen 
shrub, with small leaves, abounding in mountainous districts 
throughout Europe and North America. In this country it 
is found in Wales, and is abundant in the Highlands of Scot- 
land ; it has red berries, which afford food for grouse, and in 
Sweden, Russia, and America for bears. The whole plant 
is astringent, and is used for tanning and dyeing. 

Allied to Ericaceae is a small family called Cyrillaceas. It 
consists of about six species, natives of tropical America 
and Southern United States. They are neat simple-leaved 
shrubs or small trees, of the nature of Andromeda, differing 
from Ericacege by their anthers opening by slits, and in the 
corolla being apparently polypetalous, and are therefore by 
some botanists placed in the Barberry alliance. 

The Winter- Green Family. 

(Pyrolace^.) 

Pretty little evergreen low shrubs, spreading by under- 
ground running stems. Leaves alternate simple. Flowers 



THE EPACRIS FAMILY. 



327 



in spikes or racemes, rarely solitary. Corolla urceolate, 
deeply cleft. Stamens 10. Fruit a dry 4 or 5-celled cap- 
sule. 

About 20 species are contained in this family, all havin^ 
bell-shaped flowers like some Heaths. They are natives of 
North America, Europe, and Northern Asia, and are gene- 
rally found growing in fir woods. The principal number of 
species come under two genera {^Chimaphila and Pyrola)\ 6 
species of the latter being natives of this country, but con- 
fined to only a few localities. Chimaphila maculata is a 
pretty, somewhat variegated-leaved shrub, about 1 or foot 
in height, growing in tufts. The whole are interesting as 
pretty, neat plants, and differ only from the Heath family in 
the corolla being generally divided to the base, not truly 
monopetalous. 

Although the curious native plant Fir Rape {Monotropa 
hypopitys) differs widely from Heaths and Rhododendrons, 
the character of its flowers nevertheless brings it within this 
alliance. The whole plant consists of a fleshy few-flowered 
scape, furnished with scale-like bracts : the whole being of 
a pale or brownish colour. Corolla partially polypetalous, 
5-lobed. Stamens 10, hypogjmous. It is generally consi- 
dered to be parasitic on the roots of trees, and is found 
in masses in fir and beech woods. By some botanists 
it is considered to be a type of a distinct family, Mono- 
tropaceffi, of which there are about 8 or 10 species dis- 
tributed over the northern temperate zone. They have no 
special use. 

The Epacris Family. 

(Epacridace^.) 

Small trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, simple, distant 
or contiguous, and sheathing at the base, overlapping each 
other, rarely verticillate with longitudinal veins. Flowers 
solitary, terminal or in spikes, or in the axis of the leaves ; 
white or red. Calyx often coloured and persistent. Corolla 
short, spreading, tubular or urceolate, sometimes becoming 



828 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



5 -parted. Stamens 5, perigynous. Fruit a succulent drupe, 
berry or capsule. 

This family consists of about 300 species, the greater 
number of which are natives of Australia, Tasmania, and 
New Zealand, where they represent the Heaths of South 
Africa. A few are found in the Islands of the Pacific and 
Malayan Peninsula and Islands. They have generally harsh 
leaves, and form the scrub of the country ; many have 
pretty flowers, and are cultivated in greenhouses, such as 
different species of JEpacris, Sti/phelia, Leucopogon, Draclio- 
phyLlum, &c. They possess no particular properties, except 
that the succulent fruits of some are not unwholesome ; for 
example, Leucopogon Richei^ Astroloma humifusum^ Stenan- 
thera pinifolia^ and several Lissanthe, L. sapida, known in 
Sydney by the name of Australian Cranberry. The most 
woody species of the family is Trochocarpa laurina, a native 
of New South Wales, a tree attaining the height of from 15 
to 18 feet, having hard wood. 

The genus Bichei, of which there are four species, three 
being natives of the mountains of Tasmania, present a re- 
markable appearance. JR. pandancefoUa has a slender stem, 
attaining the height of 40 or 50 feet, with a diameter of about 
9 inches at its base, bearing a crown of long, harsh leaves, 
similar to those of the Screw Pine, and having more the 
appearance of a Draccena than as belonging to the family of 
Epacris. Dracliophyllum attenuatum is of the same habit, 
but more slender. It is a native of New Zealand. 

** Corolla monopetalous, superior (epigynous). Stamens 
epigynous or perigyncus. 

The Cranberry ramily. 

(Vacciniace^.) 

Small trees, or much branched shrubs; some partially 
epiphytal. Leaves simple, alternate, some with marginal 
glands. Flowers solitary, or in racemes ; sometimes sessile 



THE CRANBERRY FAMILY. 



329 



on the stem. Corolla urceolate, tubular, or deeply cleft and 
spreading, toothed or lobed. Stamens 4, 8 or 10, epi- 
gynous. Fruit a berry, crowned with the withered calyx. 

The general habit and nature of this family shows it to be 
intimately related to the Heath Family, but differing in the 
important character of the corolla being superior, thus 
showing that the adoption of a special character for classifi- 
cation is not always favourable to the union of families 
otherwise naturally related; and as Vacciniacese does not 
associate well with the following families, I deem it best to 
consider it as naturally part of the Heath alliance. 

About 200 species are recorded. They are widely distri- 
buted over the temperate countries of Europe, Asia, and 
America ; also found in the Andean regions of South 
America, but none in Africa or the south temperate 
zone. 

Bilberry or Blaeberry ( Vaccinium myrtillus), Whortleberry 
(F. uliginosum). Small branching shrubs, about a foot in 
height. They occupy vast tracts in bogs and moorlands, 
and even the tops of mountains throughout Europe and 
North America. Their berries are blueish, about the size 
of currants, and afford abundance of food for moorfowl; 
they are somewhat austere, but are used as a preserve for 
tarts, &c. 

Cowberry {Vaccinium vitis-idcea). A neat, tufty evergreen 
shrub, having leaves resembling box-tree leaves. It grows 
in similar places to the last, and seldom exceeds 6 inches in 
height. It has abundance of red berries, which are also 
used for preserves. 

Cranberry (Faccmmw oxycoccus). This differs from the 
preceding, being a trailing, slender-stemmed evergreen 
shrub, with narrow, lanceolate leaves. It generally grows 
in mountainous districts, and in boggy places in Scotland 
and Ireland. It differs from the rest of the genus in having 
its corolla cleft to the base and spreading, which character 
has led some botanists to separate it as a distinct genus, 
viz., Oxycoccus palustris. Vaccinium macrocarj)um, of North 



330 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



America, is of the same habit, but has a larger fruit. The 
berries of both are extensively collected, and used in tarts, 
&c. F, ovatum is a bushy species extremely abundant 
throughout North America. The berries are collected 
before they are ripe, and preserved by the North-West 
Indians for winter food. Several species of Vaccinium are 
also natives of the tropics, such as F. erytlirinum and F. 
Rollinsonia^ of Java, and F. Imrarana, of Dominico, pretty 
greenhouse shrubs. But the most remarkable of the family 
are species of Thibaudia, a beautiful genus, native of Sikkim, 
Himalaya and Bootan. They are rhododendron-like shrubs 
in general, having a thick gouty root-stock of an epiphj^al 
nature ; mostly found growing in moist mossy places. 
Several species have been introduced, of which T. pulcher- 
rima and T. macrantha are conspicuous ; they produce 
numerous sessile, tubular flowers on the stems ; the flower 
of the latter is 2 inches in length, and 1 inch in width, nearly 
white, striped with red. 

Species of the genus Macle(mia''SLnd Ceratostemma, natives 
of the Andean regions of Peru, are similar in habit to Thi- 
baudia, 

THE HONEYSUCKLE, COFFEE, AND WOODEUFFE 
ALLIANCE. 

The Qxiiniiie Family. 

(ClNCHONACE^.) 

Trees, or erect or climbing shrubs, small frutlets or herbs. 
Leaves opposite, simple, furnished with permanent stipules. 
Flowers inconspicuous, or large and showy, sometimes sessile 
on the branches, or in heads, spikes, panicles, or corymbs. 
Corolla bell-shaped, tubular, trumpet-like, or deeply cleft. 
Stamens 4 or 5. Fruit berry-like, splitting in two, or large, 
hard, and drupe-like, containing 2 or more seeds. 

This extensive family consists of more than 2500 
species ; the greater portion being natives of the torrid zone ; 
a few extending beyond, in both hemispheres. It con- 



THE QUININE FAMILY. 



331 



tains many plants useful in their respective countries, but 
only a few are of general importance. 

Coffee {Coffea Arahicd). A small, much-branched tree, 
which, when grown singly, attains the height of 20 feet, and 
much resembles a cherry tree, but has papery white bark 
and branches more slender and horizontal. It has opposite 
leaves of a light green colour, and elliptical lance-like form, 
about 6 inches in length. The flowers are in clusters in the 
axis of the leaves, and are white, like orange flowers, and 
perfume the air. The young fruit is first of a green colour, 
but on ripening becomes red, and is about the size of a small 
cherry, each containing 2 seeds closely united by their flat 
sides, which, on the pulp being removed, separate, and con- 
stitute coffee berries. Much has been written on the his- 
tory and use of Coffee. From the best accounts there 
appears little doubt that it is a native of Abyssinia, and 
derives its name from a province in that country, called 
Caffa, where it appears to have been known from time 
immemorial. It was introduced into Arabia about the 
end of the fifteenth century (or probably much earlier). 
It became indigenous there, and furnished the supply 
of coffee for a considerable period to the Turkish capital 
and Western Europe ^ being shipped from Mocha, whence 
the name of " Finest Mocha Coffee." Coffee is said to 
have been first used in London by a Smyrna merchant, 
who, in order to have it properly prepared, brought with 
him a Levantine girl, who subsequently married his coach- 
man, when they opened the first coffee-shop in London, 
in 1652. 

The plant was introduced into Holland ; and in time one 
was conveyed to the Dutch settlement of Surinam. It is 
also said to have been introduced by the French into the 
island of Martinique in 1717. From these plants it is gene- 
rally believed to have been introduced into the American 
Continent, where it is extensively cultivated throughout the 
warm parts, also in Ceylon and other parts of India. The 
chief supply to this country comes from the West Indies, 



332 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Guiana, Brazil, and from eastern countries. In Sumatra the 
leaves are extensively used as an infusion like tea ; and some 
years ago a patent was taken out for that purpose, but the 
project did not succeed. In its wild state it grows naturally 
in rocky places ; and in Bermuda has become naturalized on 
the basaltic rock. 

Peruvian, or Jesuits' bark {^Cinchona officinalis^ G. call- 
saya, C. succirubra, C. micrantha, and C. nitida). These, 
with several other species, yield Peruvian bark, from which 
the celebrated fever medicine, quinine, is obtained. They 
are all natives of the Andean regions of Peru, Bolivia, and 
New Granada, and are small branching trees not exceeding 
40 to 50 feet in height, having simple opposite leaves ; some 
not unlike coffee. The importance of the bark of these trees 
for the cure of fever was long known to the Indians ; and 
the Countess de Chinchon, Lady of the Viceroy of Peru, 
having been cured of fever by it, Linnagus named the genus 
Cinchona^ in honour of her. The curative value of Peruvian 
bark became known in Europe about 1640; and in time 
bark and port wine became a favourite medicinal prescrip- 
tion, which ultimately gave way to the pure extract of the 
bark, — an alkaloid called quinine. The demand for the 
bark being so great, it was feared the trees in their native 
countries would become extinct, as the different Governments 
took no steps to prevent their reckless destruction, or to 
make new plantations ; but the great quantity of quinine 
required for India induced the Indian Government to 
attempt the introduction of the plant ; and through the 
practical exertions of Messrs. Markham, Spruce, and Cross, 
in the year 1861, plants and seeds were successfully con- 
veyed from Peru to Ootacamund in the Neilgherry hills, and 
placed under the care of Mr. Mclvor, Superintendent of the 
Botanic Gardens there, where they flourished, and have 
been extensively propagated, so that large plantations have 
been formed under the auspices of the Government, as well 
as by private individuals. It is also successfally cultivated 
in Ceylon ; plantations have also been established at Dar- 



THE QUININE FAMILY. 



333 



jeeling, and the Dutch have introduced it into Java. It is 
now under cultivation in J amaica and Trinidad ; and the 
late severe fever in the Mauritius has induced the authorities 
to introduce it into that island. 

The Neilgherry plantations have already yielded bark in 
sufficient quantity to be brought to the European market, 
which has been found equally rich in quinine as that of Peru. 
It has also been found that an infusion of the leaves is useful 
in fever. The introduction and cultivation of quinine-pro- 
ducing plants in these countries is worthy of being recorded 
as an event of the highest importance to mankind. 

The barks of many other plants of the family possess bitter 
and tonic qualities similar to quinine, but in an inferior de- 
gree, and are used in their native countries.* 

Ipecacuanha [Cephaelis Ipecacuanha). A small mean- 
looking plant, native of Brazil, with a soft shrublet stem, 
about a foot in height, rising from a creeping knotty root ; 
oblong blunt leaves about 1 or 1 J inch in length, and heads of 
small, inconspicuous flowers. It grows in forests throughout 
the whole of Brazil, but like the Cinchona is, from the 
great demand for it, becoming extirpated in many parts. 
The roots of this plant have been long famed in medicine as 
a safe emetic, and as it is of great service in dysentery, as 
well as being tonic, it is considered a valuable drug, and 
attempts are now being made to introduce it into the West 
Indian Islands, as also into Ceylon, whither plants of it have 
been sent from Kew. The nature of the plant, however, 
seems to indicate that it would grow better in a wild state 
than under cultivation, as it will take a long time to establish 
it in quantity. 

An inferior kind of Ipecacuanha, called " Striated Ipeca- 



* Mr. Cross, a gardener, has heen despatched three times to the 
Cinchona regions of New Granada for plants and seeds ; and four 
cases of Cinchona Titayo, a species found to be very rich in 
quinine, are now (October, 1870) on their way to India. 



334 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



cuanha," is produced by Psychotria emetica^ a small tree or 
shrub, native of Peru ; with inconspicuous flowers. 

Gambier {Nauclea Gamhir). A native of the Malayan 
Islands : it is a slender-growing shrub, climbing by the aid 
of abortive flower-stalks that become hard hooks. The 
leaves are oblong, about 2 or 3 inches in length. It is cul- 
tivated at Singapore, Sumatra, and other Malayan Islands, 
for the sake of its leaves, from which, by process of boiling, 
the substance called Gambier is obtained, and is used by the 
natives for chewing with the Betel-nut. It is also made into 
cakes, and large quantities are exported to China, as also to 
this country, for tanning and dyeing. 

Dikamali resin is the produce of Gardenia lucida, a small 
stiff-branched tree with oval shining leaves, native of India. 
From the young shoots and buds a hard fragrant resin 
exudes, having something of the properties of myrrh, which 
is used for medicinal purposes, and, on account of its strong 
aroma, in hospitals in India for keeping away flies and other 
insects. . 

Considering the extent of this family there are but few 
that produce eatable fruits of any value, the chief being Van- 
gueria edulis, a small stiff tree with large elliptical leaves, 
native of Mauritius; Genipa americana and G. brasiliensiSj 
stiff-growing shrubs or small trees producing a fruit about 
the size of an orange. The native peach of Sierra Leone, 
Sarcocephalus esculenta, is a tree from 10 to 15 feet high, 
bearing a fleshy fruit the size of a peach. 

The following are the principal of the family cultivated as 
ornamental plants in the hothouses of this country. 

Cape Jasmine (Gardenia radicans and G.Jlorida), natives 
of China, both well known for their double sweet-scented 
white flowers, which are in great request for wedding bou- 
quets, as well as for wearing in head-dresses. It was long 
supposed to be a native of the Cape of Good Hope, hence the 
name Cape Jasmine. G. longijlora, G. Stanleyana and G. 
Mallifera, are small trees, natives of Sierra Leone, having 
large trumpet-shaped flowers 4 to 6 inches in length. Fort- 



THE WOODBINE FAMILY. 



335 



landia grandijlara^ native of Jamaica, has also similar flowers. 
Ixora coccinea, I. fragrans, and other species, are highly orna- 
mental flowering shrubs, as also Luculia gratissima and L. 
Pinceana, natives of India. 

The Woodbine Family. 

(Caprifoliace^.) 

Small trees or shrubs, often twining or trailing; rarely 
herbs. Leaves opposite (without stipules) entire, lobed or 
winged. Flowers in umbel-like tufts or corymbs, or spike- 
like panicles, some furnished with leafy bracts, rarely solitary, 
in the axis of the leaves. Corolla tubular, showy or incon- 
spicuous, regular or irregular. Stamens 5. Fruit a dry, 1 
or 2-celled capsule or a fleshy berry crowned with the per- 
sistent calyx. 

About 230 species constitute this family. They are chiefly 
natives of the northern temperate hemisphere ; few are found 
within the tropics. In New Zealand they are represented by 
several species of the fragrant genus Alseuosmia. Many of 
the species possess medicinal qualities, chiefly of a drastic and 
purgative nature. 

Elder (Sambucus nigra). A well-known tree, native of 
this country, attaining the height of from 20 to 80 feet. Its 
wood is white and hard, and is used for making skewers and 
shoemakers pegs, also for turnery. Elder wine is made 
from its berries, which are also said to be used for colouring 
wine. The well-known eye-lotion " Elder flower-water," is 
made from the flowers. In Scotland it is called the " Boutry 
Tree," and is considered poisonous, where as well as in 
England a great deal of superstition is attached to it. 

Woodbine, or Honeysuckle {Lonicera Periclymenum). A 
twining shrub, found wild in this country. It is a favourite 
for forming arbours, also for the sweet scent of its flowers. 
There are several species cultivated, which have been in- 
troduced from China and Japan, and are ornamental 
twiners. 



336 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Snowberry (^Symphoricarpus racemosus). A native of North 
America, and cultivated in gardens as an ornamental shrub, 
its snow-white berries being conspicuous in the autumn. 

Guelder Rose (Viburnum Opulus). A shrub, 6 to 10 feet 
high, native of this country. The flowers are produced in 
flat umbel-like corymbs, the outer series being abortive, and 
the petals enlarged and white ; but in the cultivated variety 
the whole of the flowers are abortive and form the well- 
known " snowball flower." 

Several other species of Viburnum, natives of North Ame- 
rica, form ornamental shrubs ; as also the Laurustinus ( V, 
Tinus), a native of the South of Europe, which has long been 
cultivated in this country as a handsome showy flowering 
evergreen shrub. 

The Mistletoe Family. 

(LORANTHACE^.) 

Shrubby parasites, rarely trees. Leaves opposite or alter- 
nate, thick, coriaceous, without apparent veins. Flowers 
axillary or terminal in umbel-like heads. Some unisexual, 
calyx small or a disk only. Corolla, consisting of 4 to 8 
petals, free or sometimes united, forming a tube, generally 
long and of showy colours, as in Loranthus, or inconspicuous, 
as in Viscum. Fruit, a fleshy drupe-like glutinous berry, 
crowned with a circular scar or rim, one-seeded, which is 
partly exserted. 

There being apparently only one floral envelope, much 
difference of opinion exists among botanists as to whether 
it should be viewed as a calyx or corolla ; on account of its 
being conspicuous and coloured, as in Loranthus, and seated 
on a disk, it is here considered as a corolla, the disk repre- 
senting the place of the abortive calyx. Above 400 species 
are recorded of this remarkable family. They are princi- 
pally tropical, but are represented by Myzodendron, in Terra 
del Fuego, and by Mistletoe and Loranthus Europceus in Europe. 
They abound chiefly in forest countries, where they are truly 



THE MISTLETOE FAMILY. 



337 



parasites, growing on all kinds of trees, forming great masses, 
and "ultimately destroying the parent tree. They possess no 
principle of special interest, but are highly ornamental plants, 
having fine coloured tubular flowers like " Honeysuckle," 
especially the genus Loranthus, which contains 300 species. 
The only exception to their parasitical character are Nuytsia 
jlorihunda, a native of South-West Australia, and N. ligus- 
trum of New South Wales, bushy trees attaining the height 
of 20 to 30 feet. When in flower they are so brilliant that 
they have received the name of " Flame trees." Loranthus 
europceus is found in Germany, but this as well as the tro- 
pical species, on account of their parasitical habit, are not 
cultivated. A considerable number of species belonging to 
the genus Viscum, on account of their minute flowers and 
other characters, have by some botanists been formed into a 
distinct family under the name of ViscacecE. 

Mistletoe ( Viscum album) is common in the southern parts 
of Europe, and in England is most abundant in the south and 
west, the trees in the apple orchards of Herefordshire and 
adjoining counties being loaded with it. It is less seen in the 
north, and does not extend to Scotland. It was said never to 
grow on the oak, but this is a mistake, as of late years there 
are many recorded instances. 

Much has been written respecting the Mistletoe, both 
as regards its parasitical mode of growth and structure, as 
also in relation to its ancient fame. History tells us it was 
held sacred in the religious ceremonies of the Druids. The 
very general custom of placing twigs and branches of Mistle- 
toe in our houses at Christmas is probably a relic of its pagan 
sanctity, though now retained merely as an emblem of social 
friendship and jovial custom that has long characterized that 
festive season. To supply this simple emblem, many waggon- 
loads of Mistletoe are required for London alone, and it ap- 
pears that the home produce is not equal to the demand, it 
being extensively imported from Normandy. Its berries are 
said to be poisonous, instances of death to children having 
occurred from eating them ; but this appears to be owing 

Z 



338 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



more to their glutinous nature causing them to adhere to the 
coats of the stomach, than to any active poison. 

The Madder Family. 

(Galiace^.) 

Herbs with slender angular stems and whorled leaves. 
Flowers small, axillary or in spikes or small corymbs. 
Corolla generally 4 cleft. Stamens 4. Fruit binate, dry, 
rarely pulpy, consisting of two cells, each containing 1 seed. 

About 300 species are enumerated in this family, of which 
one half belong to the genus Galium. They are in general 
weak-stemmed weedy plants, the greater portion being na- 
tives of the cool regions of the northern hemisphere, a few 
only of India, South America, and Australia. They are 
easily recognised by their angular stems and whorled leaves ; 
and on account of their star-like appearance the family has 
by some botanists been named Stellatce, A red dyeing 
property pervades the whole of them. 

Madder (Eubia tinctoria). A strong-growing perennial, 
native of the South of Europe and Western Asia, and culti- 
vated in many parts for its roots, which yield the important 
red dye called Madder, greatly used in calico printing. R. 
cardifolia forms the Madder of Bengal, and is imported under 
the name of Munjeeth. 

The imports of Madder to this country in 1869 amounted 
to nearly 72,000 tons ; to supply this demand many hundreds 
of acres of land and thousands of people are employed in its 
cultivation. It is now threatened with total extinction, a 
substance having been discovered in coal tar, called 
Anthracine, which possesses all the properties of Madder. 
Its general use depends only on whether it can be obtained 
cheaper than Madder. 

Several other species of Buhia have like properties, and it 
is said the flesh of animals becomes red when fed on these 
plants. 

In this country the family is well represented by the 



THE "BELL-FLOWER FAMILY. 



339 



different species of Galium ; G. verum growing in meadows, 
and is conspicuous in having pale yellow flowers. It has been 
long known to have the power of curdling milk, and hence 
it bears the name of Cheese Rennet. The roots are of a 
bluish colour, and yield a dye equal to Madder, for which 
purpose it is extensively collected. G. Aparine, a common 
hedge plant, is, on account of its adhering to the clothes of 
passers-by, known by the name of Cleavers, Goose-grass, or 
Ladies' Bed Straw. 

Woodruff {Asperula odoratd). A perennial, native of this 
country, generally growing in shady places in woods. It is 
in great favour for the aromatic smell of its leaves, which it 
retains for a long period when closed from the air. It is 
put into wine, giving it a peculiar flavour, and is known under 
the name of " Mai-trank," meaning Woodruff Wine. 

THE BELL-FLOWER, THISTLE, AND VALERIAN 
ALLIANCE. 

The Bell-Flower Family. 

(Campanulace^ .) 

Frutlets or more generally herbs. Leaves alternate, 
simple, entire, rarely lobed. Flowers solitary or in compact 
heads, spikes, or panicles. Corolla regular, 5 -toothed or 
lobed. Stamens 5. Fruit, a capsule opening in various 
ways, chiefly by pores or slits, generally crowned with the 
persistent withered calyx. 

About 500 species are recorded of this family, the greater 
number being natives of the temperate zone of the northern 
hemisphere ; abundant in Europe and Asia, but few in 
North America. A few of a shrubby character are found in 
Madeira, the Canaries, and Azores, and in South Africa they 
are represented by the still smaller frutlets, Lightfootia^ 
Eoella, and Wahlenbergia. The principle of this family 
consists of a milky juice of an acrid nature, their chief use 
being as ornamental garden plants. 

H^XQ-beW. {Campanula rotundifolid). A well-known native 
z 2 



340 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



plant, ornamenting banks, waysides, and grassy places, and 
poetically known as the Blue-bells of Scotland. C. latifolia^ 
the blue and white flowered varieties are also handsome 
native species found in woods. 

Eampion {Campanula rapunculus). A native of this 
country, but not very common ; it grows freely under cul- 
tivation, and its white fleshy running roots are sometimes 
used (more especially on the Continent) either raw as a 
salad or cooked as a vegetable. 

Dwarf Bell-flower (Camjmnula pumila and C. pulla). 
Two pretty species, natives of the Alps. They grow in tufts 
with flower stems, from 4 to 6 inches in height, bearing blue 
or white flowers, and are favourite window-plants. 

Canterbury Bells {Campanula medium). A strong grow- 
ing garden annual, native of Germany and Italy. It has 
been cultivated in this country for about two hundred and 
fifty years. 

Pyramidal Bell-flower {Campanula pyramidalis). A na- 
tive of Austria, and has long been cultivated for its hand- 
some appearance ; its flower-stem attains the height of 3 to 
4 feet ; it is much used as a decorative plant, and is a 
favourite in cottage gardens. 

Campanula Vidalii. A native of the Azores. It is a soft 
shrub species, producing erect flower-stems 2 feet high, bear- 
ing pretty white enamel-like flowers, and is, as well as the 
two following, a greenhouse plant. 

Campanula {Musschia) aurea. A shrubby species, native 
of Madeira. It attains the height of 3 or 4 feet, and has 
broad tobacco-like leaves. It differs from the rest of the 
family in having yellow flowers deeply 5-cleft, which has led 
to its being characterized as a distinct genus. 

Canarina Campanula. A native of the Canary Islands, 
but has been long introduced into this country. It is an 
interesting plant, having fleshy roots of great endurance, a 
plant at Kew having withstood all changes for more than 
fifty years, producing annually succulent stems, about 3 feet 
high, bearing pretty beU-shaped flowers of a rusty colour. 



841 



The Lobelia Family. 

(LOBELIACE^.) 

Fruticuls, frutlets or herbs, with alternate, simple, or 
variously lobed leaves. Flowers solitary axillary, or in 
terminal spikes or racemes. Corolla irregular, sometimes 
tubular and often curved; 5-lobed ; when deeply so, 2-lipped. 
Stamens 5. Anthers long, united edge to edge, forming a 
column round the pistil which is simple, with its apex cup- 
shaped or fringed with hairs. Fruit a I or more celled cap- 
sule opening at the apex. Seeds numerous. 

Nearly 400 species are enumerated as belonging to this 
family ; they are widely distributed within the temperate and 
tropical regions of both hemispheres ; two are natives of 
Britain, and a few are found in North America. The whole 
of the family contains a strong-scented milky juice, extremely 
acrid, and poisonous. They are even dangerous to handle, 
as the juice coming in contact with the eyes causes tem- 
porary blindness. Isotoma longijlora, a native of the West 
Indies, is a very poisonous plant, so much so that it is even 
said to kill horses. Several are, however, under proper 
prescription, powerful and useful medicines ; such are Lobelia 
injlata and L. syphilitica^ natives of North America. L. urens, 
a native of this country, is a dangerous blistering plant. Many 
are highly ornamental and are much cultivated both under 
glass and in the open air ; as i^. cardinalis, a native of the 
Southern United States, and L. splendens, of Mexico, of 
which there are several various coloured intermediate varie- 
ties ; while the small shrublet L. Erinus has come into repute 
as a flower-garden plant. 

In alliance with LoheliacecB is the family of Goodeniacece^ 
which differs in some technical characters of the flower, 
chiefly in the stamens being free, and in the whole being 
entirely destitute of the milk and poisonous qualities. There 
are about 150 species, chiefly soft shrubs or herbs, which are 
with few exceptions natives of Australia 5 they have no par- 



342 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



ticular uses medicinally or economically, except SccBvola 
Taccada, a curious soft frutical with broad obovate, somewhat 
sheathing leaves. It is common on the shores of Australia 
and Islands of the Southern and Indian oceans. It has large 
soft and spongy pith similar to that of the rice-paper plant, 
which is used for making curiosities. Goodenia ovata and 
G. grandijiora, as well as several species of Leschenaultia, 
have long been cultivated in the greenhouses of this country. 

Another close alliance is the family of StylidiacecBy consist- 
ing of about 100 species, natives chiefly of Australia and 
New Zealand; they differ from Goodeniacece in many of 
them having grassy leaves, but more essentially in having 
only 2 stamens which are united to the pistil. In Stylidium 
the pistil is bent to near a right angle, and on being touched 
springs with an elastic jerk and thus discharges the poUen. 
Stylidium graminifoUum, S. adnatum, S. fmticosum and 
others, have long been cultivated in greenhouses. 

The "Valerian Family. 

(Valerianace^.) 

Herbs, perennial or annual. Leaves entire or variously 
lobed, some almost winged. Flower-stems oppositely 
branched, bearing the flowers in spikes or panicles in the 
axis of the leaves, or terminal. Calyx membranous or 
feathery. Corolla regular or irregular, sometimes spurred. 
Stamens free. Fruit a dry achenia with 1 seed. 

About 180 species constitute this family ; they are widely 
distributed, chiefly in temperate regions. Most of them have 
a strong aromatic scent, which is not agreeable to many 
people. They are considered as stimulants, and are used for 
various purposes in medicine. 

Lambs Lettuce or Corn Salad (Valeriana olito?ia). A 
soft weedy plant, growing freely in loose soils in this 
country, and sometimes used as a salad, but more so in 
France, where three sorts are cultivated for that purpose ; it 
is also used as spinach. 



THE TEAZEL FAMILY. 



343 



Valerian {Valeriana officinalis and V. dioica). These are 
natives of Britain, the first being a tall plant 2 to 3 feet high, 
growing in damp places. The other a more dwarfish plant, 
and differing from the rest of the genus in having stamens 
and pistils in separate flowers. The roots are extensively- 
collected for medicinal purposes; they have a strong, dis- 
agreeable smell. It possesses antispasmodic virtues. Cats 
are extremely fond of the odour, plants in suburban gardens 
being often completely destroyed by their rolling on them ; 
they even roll on the earth, before the plant appears above 
the ground. Eats are also fond of the smell, and the roots 
are used by rat-catchers to draw them together. The leaves 
are considered an effectual remedy for cuts and wounds and 
have received the name of " All-heal." 

Spikenard (Nardostachys Jatamansi). A native of Western 
India and other parts. In some respects it resembles Vale- 
riana officinalis^ but the roots have a more powerful musky- 
odour. 

Much evidence has been brought forward to prove that 
this plant is the Spikenard of the Bible,* which is now 
generally admitted to be correct. It is extensively used by 
the ladies of Nepal and other parts of India to perfume oil 
for their hair, and is fully believed to be the Spikenard used 
by the ladies of ancient Rome, who, on account of the strong 
odour, must have had a different taste from the ladies of 
modern Europe. 

The Teazel Family, 

(DlPSACE^.) 

Herbs or frutlets, with opposite, entire, or variously lobed, 
even, nearly winged leaves. Flowers in heads consisting of 
numerous florets, separated by straight or hooked calyx-like 
scales, seated on a common receptacle, surrounded by a leafy 
involucre. Corolla seated on the membranous or pappus- 



* Song of Solomon, chap. i. ver. 12 ; chap. iv. vers. 13, 14. 



344 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



like calyx ; stamens 4, free. Fruit a dry 1-seeded achenia, 
crowned with the permanent calyx. 

About 150 species constitute this family. They are 
chiefly natives of Europe, North Africa, and countries bor- 
dering on the Mediterranean ; a few are found in South 
Africa. They have no special medicinal qualities. 

Teazel (Dipsacus sylvestris and D. Fullonum). Biennial 
plants, native of this country. Their flower- stems attain the 
height of 4 to 6 feet, having large, opposite, lanceolate 
leaves, with their broad bases united, forming a reservoir 
which holds water. The flowers are in heads, terminal on 
branches, and are of a cylindrical form, 2 to 4 inches in 
leagth, and about 1 inch in diameter. When ripe the scales 
become hardened, having a stiff point, which in D. sylvestris 
is straight, but in D. Fullonum is bent at right angles like a 
hook, and forms the valuable article called Fuller's Teazel, 
no mechanical contrivance yet having been invented to 
supersede its use in dressing cloth ; for which purpose it is 
cultivated in Yorkshire and many parts of Europe, and large 
quantities are imported from Germany and other parts of 
the Continent. 

The genus Scabiosa contains many ornamental species 
which are gro^vn in gardens. S. atropurpurea is an old 
favourite annual, generally known by the name of Mourn- 
ful Widow. Three species are natives of this country, S. 
succisa, Devil's Bit, is a handsome field and wayside plant, 
attaining the height of 2 or more feet, having pretty heads of 
light blue flowers. S. arvensis is a well-known troublesome 
cornfield weed. 

In alliance with Dipsacece is a small family, Calyceracece^ 
consisting of about 20 species of herbs, natives of various 
parts of America. They hold an intermediate position 
between Dipsacece and Composites, differing from the first by 
the anthers being united, and from the latter in the nature 
of their seeds. They are of no known use. 



345 



The Thistle Family. 

(Composite.) 

Herbs, frutlets, or shrubs, rarely trees, with alternate, 
simple, entire, or variously divided leaves ; often heath-like, 
or large and of rounded form 1 foot or more in diameter. 
Flowers in heads consisting of numerous florets seated on a 
common receptacle, surrounded by an entire or many-scaled 
involucre, corolla tubular, equal, or the exterior side of 
the limb of the tube extended in the form of a petal-like 
lobe or strap, termed ligulate or bilabiate ; florets uni- 
sexual, bisexual, or neuter. Stamens 5, the anthers united, 
forming a cylinder round the pistil which is simple, with a 
bifid apex. Fruit a dry 1-seeded achenia, crowned with 
the permanent scariose or plumose feathery calyx. 

The whole of the plants of this family are included in the 
19th Class, Syngenesia of Linngeus (see page 81). 

In natural arrangement this extensive family is divided 
into 3 sub -families. 

1st. Ligulijlorce, in which the florets are all ligulate, and 
correspond with part of the first order, jEqualis, of Lin- 
naeus, and are characterized by being furnished with a milky 
juice. 

2nd. Tuhuliflorce. In this the florets are in the form of a 
tube, straight or curved, 4 or 5 dented, or more deeply cleft 
and bisexual, often with pistil bearing or barren ligulate 
rays. 

3rd. Labiatifiorce. In this the florets are bilabiate ; that 
is, 2 -lipped. 

This, the largest family of plants, consists of between 
9000 and 10,000 species, and may, therefore, be considered 
as forming about one-tenth part of the whole vegetable king- 
dom. They are found in all parts of the world where plants 
' can grow, but it is remarkable that but few of them assume 
the character of trees. A considerable number are small 
shrubs, but the greater mass are herbaceous perennials and 



346 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



annuals of most free and ready growth, forming great pests 
in cornfields and gardens. Some are of high aromatic odour, 
and tonic, bitter, and astringent ; but few possess poisonous 
qualities. Many have medicinal virtues ascribed to them in 
their native countries for the cure of wounds and snake- 
bites. Many are used for food, and others produce sub- 
stances useful in the arts, of which the most important will 
be noticed. 

Jerusalem Artichoke {Helianthus tuherosus). This is said 
to be a native of Brazil ; it is a tuberous-rooted plant, with 
rod-like stems, rising to the height of from 5 to 7 feet, having 
large alternate entire leaves. It was introduced to this 
country two hundred and fifty years ago ; and, before potatoes 
were known, its tubers were much used as a common article 
of diet for the poorer classes. They are highly nutritious, 
and are extensively used in France, but not now much culti- 
vated in this country. This has nothing to do with the true 
Artichoke, neither does it come from Jerusalem, the name 
being only a misapplication of the Italian word girasole, and 
the flavour of the root being something like Artichokes. 

Sun Flower {Helianthus annuiis). A well-known annual, 
said to be native of Mexico and Peru, introduced about the 
end of the sixteenth century ; under cultivation it produces 
flowers a foot or more in diameter. It is a plant of great 
utility, and is extensively cultivated in this and other 
countries for its seeds, which are highly valued for feeding 
sheep, pigs, poultry, pigeons, rabbits, &c., and is considered 
superior to linseed for cattle. An oil is expressed from the 
seeds, and is used in Eussia in cookery ; it is said to have the 
flavour of olive oil. They are also ground up into a meal, 
the finer kind being made into tea-cakes ; and in some parts 
they are roasted and used in the place of coflee. It is an 
excellent plant for bees, large quantities of honey and wax 
being obtained from the flowers. The Chinese grow it very 
extensively, and it is believed that a large portion of its fibre 
is mixed with their silks. 

Chicory, or Succory {Cichorium Intyhus). A hardy peren- 



THE THISTLE FAMILY. 



347 



nial, native of Britain, growing by roadsides and in waste 
places, particularly in calcareous soils. It has a thick tap 
root like a carrot, and produces branching stems, 2 to 3 feet 
high, bearing pretty blue flowers. It is cultivated as a salad- 
plant, the young leaves being blanched like endive, and in 
this way is largely used in France ; but its chief importance 
is from its root, which has come into repute for mixing with 
coiFee for the purpose of imparting an agreeable flavour ; it 
has slightly diuretic qualities. It is extensively cultivated 
for this purpose, both in this country and on the continent, 
from which latter place the best quality is imported. 

Endive (Cichorium endivia). Said to be a native of the 
East Indies or China. It was introduced about three hundred 
years ago ; it is in general cultivation as a winter salad plant. 
There are several different varieties, the principal being the 
broad-leaved and curled. 

Lettuce {Lactuca sativd). The native country of the garden 
Lettuce is unknown, but it is generally supposed to be Asia. 
It has been cultivated in this country for about three hundred 
years. There are several varieties, of which the summer or 
Cos Lettuce is the best known, and is supposed to have come 
from the island of Cos (now modern Stencho), whence its 
name. Their properties are narcotic ; the milky juice, which 
abounds greatly in the wild species, L. virosa, a native of 
this country, resembles opium in its properties. An extract 
has of late years been prepared from L. sativa, which is used 
medicinally, and is milder and not attended with such de- 
pressing effects as opium. 

Dandelion (Leontodon taraxacum). This well-known plant 
is a native throughout Europe, Northern Asia, and Africa, 
and possesses great powers of reproduction by its roots, as 
also by its numerous seeds being wafted by the wind to new 
localities, where they grow readily, especially in fields and 
waste places. It takes its name from the French dent, a 
tooth, and leon, a lion, the gashes of the leaf resembling large 
teeth like lion's teeth. The roots are extensively used in 
medicine, being tonic and powerfully diuretic ; it is also used 



348 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



for flavouring coffee, being similar to chicory. Its young 
blanched leaves are used as salad. 

Scorzonera {Scorzonera hispanica). A perennial, native of 
Spain. Salsafy (Tragopogon porrifolius). A biennial, native 
of this country. These are both cultivated in gardens for the 
sake of their roots, those of the former being lik^ a carrot, 
but black outside, white inside ; those of the latter not so 
large. They are used in various ways. 

Artichoke [Cynara scolymus). A native of the countries 
of the Mediterranean, and known in this country for at least 
three hundred years. It is a hardy perennial, with large 
gashed leaves, 2 or 3 feet long, of a greyish colour, and is 
cultivated for its flower-heads, which are composed of large 
scales, the base being thick and called Artichoke bottoms, the 
part used as a vegetable. 

Cardoon (Cynara cardunculus). A native of the South of 
Europe. It has been known in this country for above two 
hundred years, and is allied to the preceding, but the part 
used as a vegetable is the blanched leaf-stalks. Its flowering 
head is smaller than the Artichoke, and is crowned with 
pretty blue flowers that are said to curdle milk. 

Camomile (Anthemis nohilis). A hardy perennial or rather 
evergreen shrublet with fine cut leaves, native of Britain. 
There are two varieties, one with single and the other with 
double flowers. They are greatly used as a tonic, being 
extremely bitter, also as emetic, and in fomentations. The 
plant is extensively grown at Mitcham in Surrey, and in 
Derbyshire. The double sort is generally sold in chemists' 
and druggists' shops, whereas the single is purchased and sold 
exclusively at Apothecary's Hall. An oil is extracted from 
the entire plant, one variety yielding a blue and the other a 
green oil. 

Flea powder {Byretlirum carneum, P. roseum and P. pur- 
puremn). Natives of Caucasus. They are perennial plants 
with much divided leaves, and probably forming only one 
species, varying in the colour of their flowers, as indicated by 
their names. A preparation was at one time made from the 



THE THISTLE FAMILY. 



849 



leaves, and extensively used throughout Russia for the de- 
struction, or rather driving away of fleas and other vermin 
of like nature. About forty years ago it became very popu- 
lar, and still continues to be used in Germany. 

Feverfew {Pyrethriim Parthenium). An erect bushy plant, 
a foot or more in height, with much divided leaves, the 
whole of a light green colour, having white rayed flowers 
like Camomile. It is wild in many parts of this country, 
often growing on walls, but considered a doubtful native. 
It is bitter and tonic, and is an old remedy in fevers. The 
smell is strong and offensive, and is sometimes used to drive 
bees from their hives. A double variety of it is grown as an 
ornamental garden-plant. 

Pellitory'of Spain (^nacz/cZws Pyrethrum). A perennial, 
native of the south of Europe, having much divided leaves 
and prostrate stems, with white flowers. It is cultivated in 
the south of Europe and north of Africa for its roots, 
which are cut in short pieces, known in the shops under the 
name of "Eadix Pyrethri," and used medicinally and for 
tooth-ache. It first causes a sensation of cold, followed by 
heat. 

Elecampane {Inula Helenium). A strong growing pe- 
rennial with large entire leaves, and flower stem 3 or 4 feet 
high, bearing large yellow-rayed flowers. It is native of 
this country, and is cultivated for its roots ; the whole plant 
has an aromatic bitter flavour, especially the root, which 
abounds in a mucilaginous principle resembling starch. It 
has been famed as a medicinal plant of great virtue, but is 
now out of repute, and is only used for flavouring sweets. 

Colts-foot (Tussilago Farfard). A perennial, common in 
roadsides and waste places, often seen abundant in railway 
cuttings. It has large angular-shaped leaves of a greyish 
colour. It is bitter and astringent, containing a large quan- 
tity of mucilage, and much used in cases of asthma, being 
smoked like tobacco. 

Tarragon {Artemisia Dracunculus). A hardy perennial, 
native of Siberia, and cultivated in gardens as a culinary 



350 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



herb. It is used in salads and soups, also pickled, and an 
infusion in vinegar forms tarragon vinegar. 

Wormwood {Artemisia Absinthium^) A. maritima, natives of 
Britain, and A. pontica of Germany, east of Europe, and 
western Asia, are all hardy perennials, having the same habit 
and properties, being aromatic, intensely bitter, and in great 
repute as a vermifuge, whence its name Wormwood. 

It is used to prevent moths and other insects from infest- 
ing clothes and furniture. In Switzerland a bitter abstract 
called Absinthe is extensively manufactured from these, 
especially A. pontica^ and is drunk in large quantities by the 
French, millions of gallons being annually imported from 
Switzerland, as well as a large quantity of it being manufac- 
tured in France. It first produces activity and pleasant 
sensations, and inspires grand ideas to the mind, but its 
'habitual use brings on stupor and gradual diminution of the 
intellectual faculties, ending in delirium and death. The 
French Government have found it necessary to prohibit the 
use of it in the army and navy. Wormwood is frequently 
mentioned in the Bible, and is symbolical of bitter calamity. 

Southernwood {Artemisia Ahrotanum). A well-known 
garden shrub, much in favour for its stimulating, aromatic 
odour ; it is native of the south of Europe. In some parts 
of Scotland it is known by the name of " Apple ringey." 

Moxa {Artemisia chinensis). A native of China, and used 
for producing a blister, which is done by burning small pellets 
of the dried plant on the skin. 

Costus {Aplotaxis Lappa or Auchlandia Cosfus). A strong 
rooted perennial, native of the valleys of Cashmere, pro- 
ducing a flower-stem 5 or 6 feet in height ; lobed slashed 
leaves about 2 feet long, and flowers in thistle-like heads, of 
a purple colour ; the root is collected in large quantities and 
conveyed to Bombay, where it is shipped to ports in the Persian 
Gulf, the Red Sea, and to China. Its chief use is for incense 
and perfume, also to protect Cashmere shawls from moths. It 
is supposed to be the celebrated Costus of the ancients. 

Guaco {Mikania guaco). This and several other species of 



THE THISTLE FAMILY. 



851 



MiTcania are climbing plants, with opposite, generally sessile 
leaves. They are common throughout tropical America, 
and several of them are in high repute for the cure of snake 
bites, more especially M. guaco ; but its powers are not well 
authenticated, and the name Guaco is applied to other climb- 
ing plants, such as Aristolochia, which are also used for the 
same purposes. 

Madia Oil {Madia sativa). A clammy annual, native of 
Chili, and cultivated in many parts of America and Europe, 
for the sake of its seeds, which are made into oil-cake. 

SafEower (Carthamus tinctorius). A prickly stiff-leaved 
annual, about 2 feet high, producing spiny heads of red 
"flowers. It has long been cultivated throughout China, India, 
the Levant, Egypt, Southern Europe, and even at one time in 
England, where it was introduced three hundred years ago. It 
yields a valuable dye, varying in shades of colour between red 
and yellow, which is obtained by collecting the red florets of 
the flower just before withering, and is greatly used for dyeing 
China silks, crapes, and Spanish wool. It is also the prin- 
cipal ingredient in the rouge that is used by theatrical actors, 
&c. The chief import comes to this country from China, 
India, and Egypt. The seeds yield an oil, which in India 
is used for burning in lamps as well as for culinary 
purposes. 

The principal shrubby and woody species of this family 
are found within or near the tropics ; they also abound in 
South Africa, Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand. But 
few assume the character of timber trees, the principal 
being — 

Musk Tree {Aster {Euryhia) argophylla). A native of 
Tasmania, and one of the largest trees of the family ; it 
attains the height of 20 or more feet with a diameter of 1 
foot, furnishing a hard, solid wood that takes a good polish. 
It has lance-shape silvery leaves, 3 to 5 inches in length, 
smelling strong of musk, and on that account is an old 
favourite in the greenhouses of this country. 

Bedfordia salicina. Another tree of Tasmania, but smaller 



352 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



than the last, seldom exceeding 15 feet in height, often more 
like a shrub. The wood is prized for its beautiful grain, 
and is used for cabinet work, under the name of Dogwood. 

In New Zealand, Euryhia furfuracea^ and several others, 
are hard wooded and attain the size of small trees ; as also 
Senecio Forsteri^ which is remarkable for its large white re- 
pand leaves. 

African Fleabane {Tarchonanthus camphoratus). A native 
of the Cape of Good Hope. It is a large shrub, often 
assuming the appearance of a small tree 10 to 15 feet high, 
having elliptical greyish leaves, smelling strongly of cam- 
phor, on which account it is supposed to be a remedy 
against fleas. It has been introduced to this country about 
one hundred and sixty years, and is often to be seen in 
greenhouses. It may be considered the largest and most 
woody representative of the family in South Africa. 

In America the woody kinds are represented by different 
species of Baccharis, and in Brazil by Stifftia Chrysantha. A 
small tree, about 10 feet in height, having much branching 
stems, lanceolate, shining leaves, and bearing heads of orange- 
coloured flowers. It belongs to the division Lahiatijioroej and 
has long been cultivated in the hothouses at Kew. 

Amongst the curious plants of the family is Ceradia 
furcata^ a native of dry barren places on the South- West 
Coast of Africa. It is a soft, thick, erect, branching shrub, 
the branches forking like horns ; the whole being about a 
foot or more in height, having a few simple leaves on the top 
of each shoot, and with flowers not unlike the common 
groundsel. A fragrant gum exudes from the fractured 
stems. 

The species of the genus Klenia are also succulent, often 
jointed-stemmed, and sometimes leafless ; K. articulata being 
frequently grown in windows as a curiosity, and known by 
the name of the Candle plant. 

There are many ornamental garden plants belonging to 
this family, of which only a few can be here noticed, as — 

Chrysanthemum indicum, a native of China. Its date of 



THE THISTLE FAMILY. 



353 



introduction is not recorded, but is known to have been 
cultivated about one hundred years ago, first being treated 
as a greenhouse plant ; but as it was found to flower in the 
open air in autumn, it soon became a great favourite. Other 
fine varieties have been introduced, as also raised in this 
country, and Chrysanthemum shows now yearly take 
place. 

The Dahlia may be considered the next in repute. It is 
a native of Mexico, and is recorded as being introduced in 
1789 and 1802. It was supposed there were two species, 
D. superflua and D. frustranea, but they are now considered 
to be one. The flowers were originally single, one having 
pistilliferous rays, and the other barren ; the two now are 
united under the name D. variahilis. The first plants intro- 
duced do not appear to have been much valued and were 
early lost ; but it was again introduced from France, and 
about 1818 began to be specially noticed in this country, the 
roots being considered eatable like the potato, but it found 
no favour. About 1820, seedling plants began to produce 
double flowers, which florists have now brought to the 
highest state of perfection. One of the most ornamental 
spring-flowers of the greenhouse is the well-known Cine- 
raria^ of which there are many beautiful varieties, varying 
in shades of colour of white, blue, red, &c., the original 
species being C. cruenta, a native of Tenerifle. 

Thistles consist of about 200 species of prickly, biennial, 
or perennial plants, belonging chiefly to the genus Carduus, 
Cnicus, and Onopordon^ of which 14 or 15 are natives of 
this country, Cnicus arvensis, and C. lanceolatus, being well- 
known cornfield and meadow pests. Cardials Marianus is 
known as the Blessed, Milk, and Mary's Thistle, superstition 
ascribing the white lines or marks on its leaves to a drop of 
the Virgin Mary's milk having fallen on it. Onopordon 
Acanthium, native of the south of Europe, has become indi- 
genous in this country, but rare ; generally found grow- 
ing in gardens. It sometimes attains the height of from 
6 to 8 feet, and has numerous hoary branches, each termi- 

A A 



354 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



nated by a head of pink flowers, the whole having the 
appearance of a magnificent candelabrum. 

In heraldry the figure of a thistlehead in flower consti- 
tutes the badge emblematic of Scotland. It appears to have 
first come into use in 1488 ; but in early history no cause 
is assigned for its being chosen, all legends, and what 
has been written about it in modern times, being merely 
fables. In 1540 James Y. instituted an order of knight- 
hood called the Order of the Thistle. 

Thistles were in early times known as only natives of the 
temperate Northern hemisphere, but they have now extended 
their domain to the South. In some countries, such as the 
grassy plains of South America, extensive tracts are now 
occupied by them. They have also spread widely in South 
Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and other countries. They 
are truly usurpers and conquerors of the soil, and as such 
are favoured by nature, their pappus seeds being carried in 
the air to great distances ; and well may it be said of them 
— "See the conquering hero comes!" for on whatever soil 
they fall that is at all favourable to plant-life, a colony of 
thistles appears, the original holders of the soil disappearing 
before them. They are, however, wholesome; and, after 
being bruised to destroy the prickles, are given as food to 
cattle. In New South Wales the Milk Thistle becomes 
useful in dry seasons for cattle food. 

Several other species of the family may also well be 
called usurpers, such as the Common Daisy (^Bellis perennis). 
Groundsel (Senecio vulgaris), Dandelion {Leontodon taraxa- 
cum), Cat's-ear {HypoclicBris radicata^, &c., these being pests 
in lawns and pastures. 



355 



Section 2. — Polypetal^. 

Ovary inferior. 

Stamens usually perigy nous ^ or sometimes on an epigynous 
dish. 

THE UMBEL, IVY, AND DOGWOOD ALLIANCE. 
The Umbel Family. 

(Umbellifer^.) 

Herbs, generally with hollow flower-stems, or rarely per- 
manent shrubby, branching, or single tree -like stems, having 
alternate leaves, generally lobed, and much divided into nume- 
rous segments, sheathing at the base. Flowers in umbels, 
generally furnished with universal and partial involucrae. 
Petals 5, seated on an epigynous disk. Fruit consisting of 2 
one-seeded flat carpels united by a common axis, separating 
when mature ; they are traversed by ridges called vittse, con- 
taining oil. 

An extensive family, containing more than 1500 species, 
chiefly natives of temperate countries of the Northern hemi- 
sphere and elevated regions within the Tropics ; they are 
represented in the Southern hemisphere in the form of shrubs. 
The only tree representatives are Monizia edulis and Melano- 
selinum decurrens, natives of Madeira. Three distinct pro- 
perties pervade the family — viz., acrid and poisonous, aro- 
matic and wholesome, or milky and resinous. 

Carrot {Daucus Carota). A biennial, native of Britain ; 
in its wild state it is found by roadsides and in waste places. 
It has a dry, slender root, which is not edible ; but it is 
generally believed that the cultivated garden carrot originated 
from it. The carrot was known to the Romans, and is 
supposed to have been introduced to this country from Hol- 
land about three hundred years ago. The juice is used 
for colouring cheese. 

Parsnip (Pastinaca sativa). A native of Britain, found 
growing in waste places; like the carrot, it is inedible in 
A A 2 



356 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



its wild state. The cultivated parsnip was, according to 
Pliny, cultivated in Germany, from whence it was originally 
brought to Eome. In this country it, as well as the carrot, 
forms a useful winter vegetable. It is extensively culti- 
vated in Jersey, and pigs fed on it make excellent pork ; it 
contains sugar, and a wine is made from it called parsnip wine. 

Celery (Ajmim graveolens). A biennial, native of various 
parts of England, and throughout Europe, also widely dis- 
persed over the temperate regions of the Southern hemi- 
sphere. In its wild state it is to a certain degree poisonous, 
but under cultivation becomes a Avholesome salad and pot-herb. 

Parsley (Apinm Petroselinum). A biennial, originally 
believed to be a native of Sardinia. It has become wild in 
some parts of England, and is cultivated as a well-known 
pot-herb. 

Caraway {Carum Carui). A biennial, native of Europe, 
and has become wild in some parts of Britain. It is cul- 
tivated in Essex and Kent for the sake of its seeds, which 
are carminative, and used in confectionery, as well as for 
flavouring spirits, and perfuming soaps. An oil is also ob- 
tained from it which is used medicinally. 

Coriander {Coriandrum sativum). An annual, native of the 
South of Europe, and, like the caraway, is cultivated in this 
country for the sake of its aromatic seeds, which are used 
in confectionery, and also for flavouring spirits. The so-called 
seeds of caraway and coriander are, in reality, true fruits. 

Dill {Anethum graveolens). A biennial, native of Spain, 
and other parts of Europe. It somewhat resembles fennel, 
and is cultivated for the sake of its seeds, from which, by 
distillation, dill-water is obtained. They are also used as a 
condiment, and contain an essential and ethereal oil used in 
medicine. The leaves of the plant are used for flavouring 
soups and pickles. This is supposed to be the Anise of the 
New Testament. 

Cummin [Cuminum sativum). An annual, with fennel- 
like leaves, and seeds like the caraway, having an aromatic 
but somewhat bitter flavour. It appears to have been early 



THE UMBEL FAMILY. 



857 



cultivated in Palestine, as it is mentioned in Isaiah,* as well 
as in the New Testament. f 

Aniseed (Pimpinella Anisum). An annual, native of 
Egypt. It is cultivated in the Levant and Spain for the 
seeds, which are used in confectionery, and a well-known 
cordial, called Aniseed, is made from them. 

Angelica {Angelica Archangelicd). A tall growing plant, 
with broad parsnip-like leaves, native of this country. Can- 
died Angelica is made from the leafstalks; and the root 
was at one time famed for yielding an aromatic tincture. 

Fennel {Foeniculum vulgare). A perennial, aromatic plant, 
naturalized in this country, and wild in Europe and some 
parts of Asia. It is a tall plant, the flower stems in sum- 
mer rising to the height of five or six feet, and is cultivated 
in gardens for its finely cut leaves, which are much used for 
garnishing and flavouring fish sauce. Fennel oil is extracted 
from its seeds. 

Finochis or Finicho {Fceniculum dulce). This is considered 
by many to be a variety of the preceding, but diflers from it 
in the base of the radical leafstalk being swollen, thick, and 
becoming united, thus forming a kind of tuber, which is used 
extensively in France and Italy as a culinary vegetable. It 
is not much cultivated in this country, but is sometimes to 
be seen in the vegetable markets in London. 

Chervil {Scandix Cerefolium). A native of Europe, and 
has become wild in some parts of England, where it has been 
cultivated as an aromatic pot-herb for more than two cen- 
turies. 

Skirret (Sium Sisarum). A perennial, native of China 
and Japan. The roots are the part used, and are about the 
thickness of a finger. It was at one time much cultivated 
as an esculent vegetable, but is now seldom seen. 

Samphire (Crithmum maritimum). A perennial, native of 
the rocky shores of Europe, abundant on the Cliffs of Dover. 
It is collected and made into a pickle. 



* Chap, xxviii. 25, 27. 



t St. Matt, xxiii. 23. 



S58 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Sea Holly or Sea Holm {Eryngium maritimum). A strong 
growing perennial, found on tlie sandy shores of this country. 
It has spiny leaves, and compact heads of blue flowers, the 
whole plant having a bluish-white appearance ; the roots are 
candied and sold as candied Eryngo. When boiled or 
roasted, they resemble chestnuts, and are palatable and 
nutritious. 

Arracacha esculenta. A native of and cultivated in abun- 
dance in the Andean regions of Peru and New Grenada. It 
is similar in growth to some species of Chcerophyllum, and 
has large fusiform roots like carrots, forming an extensive 
article of food to the inhabitants of the above-named regions. 
About forty years ago it was introduced into this country 
under the expectation that it would supersede the Potato, 
but it did not succeed. 

Giant Fennel (Ferula communis). A tall perennial, native 
of the South of Europe, often attaining t>he height of 10 or 
more feet, having stems about 3 inches in diameter filled 
with pith which, when dry, ignites like tinder, and is used in 
Sicily and other parts for that purpose. When once ignited 
it consumes very slowly, and without injury to the tube of 
the stem : it is used for preserving and carrying fire from 
place to place. This custom is of great antiquity, and serves 
to explain the passage in Hesiod, where speaking of the fire 
Prometheus stole from Heaven, " He says he brought it in 
Ferula." 

Asafoetida (Ferula (JSfarthex) Asafcetida). A tall grow- 
ing plant with fennel-like leaves, from which it scarcely 
differs as a genus. It is a native of Thibet and the western 
parts of Asia, and is said to produce the genuine asafoetida, 
which is a milky juice that exudes from and hardens on the 
root when cut. In this country it is used in medicine, but 
has a rcost nauseous smell, hence the name "Devil's Dung," 
being a great contrast to the name, " Food of the Gods," given 
to it by the Persians, who hold it in high esteem, and use it as 
a condiment. Several other allied species also yield asafoetida 
of various qualities. 



THE UMBKL FAMILY. 



359 



Ammoniacum {Dorema ammoniacum)^ A tall fennel-like 
plant, native of Persia, and other parts of Western Asia. 
It attains tlie height of six or seven feet, and has large com- 
pound leaves. The stem, when punctured, yields a milky- 
juice, which hardens and becomes Gum Ammoniacum. A 
similar gum is yielded by other allied species. The punctures 
are made naturally by insects, which abound at the time the 
plant has attained perfection. It is used medicinally in this 
country as a stimulant. 

Silphium {Ferula (Thapsia) Silphium). This is supposed 
to have yielded the gum resin called "Laser Cyrenaicum," 
which was so highly valued by the people of ancient Cyrene 
that they thought it worthy of being represented on their 
coins. In order to its identification, the late Mr. Koenig, 
keeper of the coins in the British Museum about thirty-five 
years ago, procured a plant direct from Cyrene, which was 
understood to be the " Silphium." Unfortunately it did not 
long survive the effects of its transit, but the few radical 
leaves it had on its arrival were sufficient to enable me to 
determine it to be closely allied, if not identical with Ferula 
glauca, a species with multifid glaucous leaves and a smooth 
stem attaining the height of fi:om 4 to 5 feet, bearing showy 
umbels of pale yellow flowers. It is a native of the South of 
Europe, and is recorded as being introduced more than three 
hundred years ago. 

Gum Galbanum, Gum Opopanax, Gum Sagapenum, and 
other similar gums, are obtained from plants allied to Ferula, 
but it is doubtful what species yield the different kinds.* 
They are natives of Syria, Persia, and countries bordering 
the Mediterranean. There are three kinds of Galbanum — 
viz., Galbanum in grains or tears, Galbanum in masses, and 
Persian Galbanum, all of which are obtained from exudations 
of the stem or root. 

A gum of some of the above mentioned plants is supposed 
to be the substance spoken of in Exodus, chap. xxv. ver. 10, 

* It is now ascertained that the first is obtained from Ferula 
galhaniflua, and the second from Chironium opopanax. 



360 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



and other parts of the Bible, as being used for incense and 
perfumery. 

Hemlock (Coniw?i maculatiim). A common plant in this 
country, growing in waste places, hedges, and roadsides. It 
has a hollow stem marked with reddish spots, rising sometimes 
to the height of 3 or 4 feet, bearing umbels of white flowers, 
and much divided parsley-like leaves ; the whole of a pale 
green colour, having a nauseous smell Avhen bruised. The 
plant is poisonous in the highest degree, the most active 
part being the fruit. In medicine it is called Conium, and is 
beneficial in some diseases when properly administered. 

Water Dropwort {(Enanthe crocata). A strong growing 
perennial, attaining the height of 2 or 3 feet, having com- 
pound divided leaves, with broad segments. It grows in 
ditches 'and watery places, and has thick Parsnip-like roots, 
but differs from that plant in a number growing together ; 
they are j3oisonous in the highest degree. Several years ago 
a number of convicts were poisoned through eating this root 
in mistake for Parsnips, and cattle have suffered by eating 
those cast out in clearing ditches. 

Water Hemlock {^Phellandnum aquaticimi). Water Parsnip 
(Siwn latifoliiim). Coivhane {Cicuta virosa). Natives of 
Britain, growing in wet places, even in water. They are all 
highly poisonous, fatal accidents having occurred by the 
leaves being eaten in mistake for Celery and Parsley. Indeed 
it may be said that all umbelliferous plants growing near 
watery places possess a more or less poisonous quality. 

Fools Parsley (^thusa Cynapiuin). An annual, native of 
this country, often growing in cultivated ground, and in 
gardens, so much resembling parsley, especially the broad- 
leaved kind, that it has been used for such. It is highly 
poisonous, producing numbness, insensibility, and sometimes 
death. It is distinguished from parsley by the bluish tint 
of its leaves, and being an annual, it comes into flower long 
before Parsley. 

The whole of the preceding plants are of very uniform 
appearance and character, being herbaceous, annuals, and pe- 



THE IVY FAMILY. 



361 



rennials, varying chiefly in size, and their leaves being more 
or less compoundly divided; the umbels of flowers being 
Avhite or yellow. As already stated, few partake of the shrub 
or tree character, but the following may be mentioned as 
curious examples : — 

Monizia edulis. A native of a small island contiguous to 
Madeira. It is one of the few single-stemmed tree repre- 
sentatives of the family. The stems of young plants look 
like carrots or parsnips growing above ground ; but in old 
plants they attain a diameter of 6 inches at the base, tapering 
upwards, and attaining the height of from 4 to 6 feet, termi- 
nating with a crown of decompound spreading leaves, having 
the aspect of a tree fern. The roots are somewhat succulent, 
and are eaten. 

Balsam Bog (Bolax gleharia). A heath- leaved shrub, having 
branches successively forking from a central root, being short 
and moss-like, and growing so compact that old plants become 
so firm and hard as to resist the pressure of the hand ; 
they assume the shape of round hillocks, 3 or 4 feet in dia- 
meter, and the same in height. It is a native of the Falk- 
land Islands, and the large number of them imparts a peculiar 
feature to the landscape. A gum is obtained from it, which 
is used in medicine. A specimen of this curious plant is to 
be seen in the Museum at Kew, measuring 9 feet 4 inches in 
circumference. 

The only hardy shrubby species of the family is Bupleu- 
rum fruticosmn, a much-branching small shrub, Avith roundish 
entire smooth leaves. Native of the South of Europe. 

The greater number of shrubby species are found in 
Australia, consisting of species of the genera Trachymene^ 
Astrotricha^ Xanthosia, and others. 

The Ivy Family. 

(Araliace^.) 

Small trees, soft-wooded shrubs, or climbing Ampelids, 
rarely herbs. . Leaves alternate, entire, lobed, palmate, or 



362 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



digitate ; or once or twice winged, or more divided ; the 
footstalk slieatliing, sometimes with superior lobes like 
stipules. Flowers generally in umbels, panicles, or racemes, 
some unisexual. Petals and stamens varying from 2 to 10. 
Fruit dry, consisting of several cells, eacli containing 1 seed, 
or succulent, berry like. 

Nearly 200 species constitute this family, which are 
widely distributed in both temperate and tropical regions, 
and in many respects are allied to UmhellifercB, but dilFer in 
being, with few exceptions, all of a shrubby or arborescent 
habit. 

Ivy (Jffedera Helix). The common Ivy is a native of this 
country, and is well known by its covering w^alls and climb- 
ing over trees, to which it gives a picturesque appearance. 
In winter its berries constitute a great part of the food of 
birds. The specific name " IIeUx''rwsiS, given to the Ivy by 
Linnseus, on account of it being a great harbour for snails 
— Helix being the scientific name of a shell like that of the 
snail. It is called the emblem of friendship, but its friend- 
ship with trees is to gradually choke and destroy them. 

The ancients dedicated the Ivy to Bacchus, the God of 
Wine ; and in the Book of Maccabees we read, that on the 
feast of that god being kept, " the Jews were compelled to 
go in procession to Bacchus, carrying Ivy." 

Ginseng {Panax ScJiinseng). A native of Tartary and 
Northern China, grooving at one time abundantly in Man- 
churia ; but its great use in China has caused it to become 
scarce. It is a low herbaceous plant with forked roots, 
which the Chinese imagine resembles the human form, and 
is supposed to ward off all diseases. It is sHghtly bitter and 
aromatic, but is not of much repute with European doctors. 
P. quinquefolia, a native of North America, is sometimes 
substituted for it. 

Eice-paper Plant [Aralia papyrifera). The plant pro- 
ducing the beautiful substance called Rice-paper, was long 
unknown to botanists, and on inquiry being made respecting 
it, fanciful figures and descriptions were given of it by the 



THE IVY FAMILY. 



363 



Chinese. Not long after the commerce of China was opened 
to Europe it was ascertained that it came from the Island of 
Formosa, which led Sir John Bo wring, then Governor of 
Hong-Kong, to obtain plants from that island, one of which 
arrived safely at Kew in 1853, and flowered in 1855 ; thus 
proving it to be an Aralia. It is a small tree, attaining the 
height of about 10 feet, with a stem from 3 to 4 inches in 
diameter, the interior being full of white pith like the Elder. 
It has soft, downy, palmate leaves, something like those of 
the Plane Tree, growing on long footstalks, and produces a 
somewhat erect panicled raceme of small flowers. The tree is 
cut down in order to obtain the pith, which averages, accord- 
ing to size, about 1 inch in diameter. It is divided into 
pieces about 3 inches in length, and by the aid of a sharp 
instrument is unrolled, forming a thin narrow sheet, and 
constitutes Eice Paper, which is greatly used by the Chinese 
for drawing figures of plants and animals, and also for making 
artificial flowers. The plant requires the protection of a 
greenhouse in this country ; but in warm countries, such 
as New South Wales, it has already almost become in- 
digenous. 

The family is well represented in hothouses by several 
species of Panax, Aralia, Sciadophyllum, Gilihertia, Gastonia, 
and two Cape of Good Hope species of Cussonia ; in the open 
air by the Angelica tree (Aralia spinosa), a native of North 
America; also the herbaceous species A. nudicauHs, and J.. 
racemosa. In New Zealand it is represented by about 10 
species, Aralia polaris being a bushy perennial 3 or 4 feet 
high; A. crassifolia is a slender pole-like tree, 20 or more 
feet in height, and is remarkable in having simple or tri- 
foliate strap-like leaves, some a foot or more in length, and 
about |- an inch in width. In Australia, Panax samhuci- 
folia forms a small tree or bushy shrub. 

Botryodendron macrophyllum, a native of Norfolk Island, 
has also a slender pole-like stem, 10 to 15 feet high, having 
broad elliptical entire leaves, IJ to 2 feet in length, which a 
celebrated traveller compares to a loose cabbage fixed on a 



864 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



broomstick. Specimens of these curious plants are to be 
seen at Kew. 

A remarkable plant, Ckinnera scabra, a native of Cliili, is re- 
ferred by some botanists to this family. In habit of growth it 
is similar to Rhubarb, having rough leaves, sometimes attain- 
ing a diameter of 6 feet; a plant at Kew measured 1 5 feet across. 
It may be considered the largest leaved herbaceous exogen. 

The Dogwood Family. 

(COEXACE^.) 

Small trees or shrubs, rarely herbs, leaves simple oppo- 
site (in one case alternate). Flowers in umbels (with or 
wdthout petaloid involucrum), or in panicles or racemes, 
seldom solitary and axillary, rarely unisexual. Petals and 
stamens 4 each. Fruit a 2-seeded berried drupe, bearing the 
permanent calyx. 

About 50 species are enumerated as belonging to this 
family. They are natives of the temperate regions of the 
Northern hemis23here, extending to the limits of plant life, and 
re23resented in New Zealand by the genus Corohia^ a white 
lance-leaved shrub, with axillary small yellow flowers. 

Cornelian or Jews Cherry {Cornus mascida). A native of 
many parts of Europe ; in this country it is a small tree, or 
rather bushy shrub, attaining the height of 10 or 15 feet, its 
numerous small yellow flowers in spring making it conspi- 
cuous. The fruit is oblong, clear and shining, of a cornelian 
colour, and about the size of a smaU plum. It is not very 
palatable, but is eaten in some parts as a substitute for olives ; 
it is also preserved and used in confectionery, and in Turkey 
for flavouring sherbet. It is considered useful in dysentery, 
and during the time of cholera in Constantinople was the 
only fruit allowed to be sold in the streets. Its wood is hard 
and durable, and is used for making many domestic imple- 
ments. 

Dogwood or Cornel Tree (^Cornus sanguinea). A common 
shrub in this country and throughout Europe and North 



THE DOGWOOD FAMILY. 



865 



Africa, well known hj its pretty red wood and black berries. 
It takes its name of Dogwood from the circumstance of a de- 
coction of its bark having been formerly used for washing 
mangy dogs. The wood is hard, and is used for many pur- 
poses, as making spokes of wheels, skewers, &c. Several 
species, natives of North America, form ornamental shrubs in 
this country. 

C. Jlorida is a small tree, conspicuous by its large white 
involucre. Its bark is used in the United States as a substi- 
tute for Peruvian bark. 

Cornus siiecica. A pretty small herbaceous plant, attaining 
the height of 6 inches, native of this country, especially the 
north of Scotland, and throughout Europe, being abundant 
in Lapland, where its red berries are used as food, as also in 
more northern countries by the Esquimaux. 

Cornus canadensis is similar to the preceding, but of larger 
groAvth, and is found abundantly throughout the whole of 
North America, from Pennsylvania to Labrador on the east, 
and Sitka on the north-west. The berries are also used as 
food, and in some districts are called Pudding Berries. 

Bentliamia fragifera. An interesting shrub, native of 
Northern India, but not sufficiently hardy for the neighbour- 
hood of London. In Cornwall, and some parts of the west 
of England, it forms a handsome bush, producing abundance 
of strawberry-like fruit. In India the fruit is used as a 
preserve, but it is not very palatable. 

Aucuha japonica. This well-known interesting shrub is a 
native of Japan, and was introduced into this country in 1783. 
Its nature not being known, it was at first kept in the hot- 
house, but it was soon discovered to be one of our hardiest 
evergreen shrubs. It is a dioecious plant, and up to the year 
1862 only the female plant was in this country ; but through 
the exertions of Mr. Fortune, the male plant has been intro- 
duced, and now numerous red berries are produced on the 
female plants, which are highly ornamental. 



366 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



The Witch Hazel Family. 

(Hamamelidace^.) 

Small, deciduous, or evergreen trees, or shrubs. Leaves 
simple, alternate, with parallel veins running from the 
midrib to the margin, furnished with deciduous stipules. 
Flowers in heads or spikes, sometimes contained in an 
involucre. Petals generally small or wanting. Stamens 
generally 4, much longer than the petals. Pistils 2. Fruit 
a capsule, opening by valves. 

A small and cuiious family of plants, consisting of about 
18 species, forming nearly as many genera. They are 
natives chiefly of, and widely spread over, the Northern 
hemisphere. They possess no peculiar properties for general 
use, but the following are cultivated in this country : — 
Witch Hazel {Hamamelis virginica and Fothergilla alni- 
folid), natives of North America and hardy in this country ; 
Parrotia persica, a small tree of Northern Persia, and its 
ally, Corylopsis spicata, of Japan, have deciduous leaves like 
the Hazel, and are hardy in this country ; Tricliocladus 
crinitus, a native of South Africa, was introduced in 1823. 
It is a rusty-leaved bushy plant growing to the height of 
about 3 feet. One of the most interesting of the family is 
Rliodoleia Championi, native of Hong-Kong, introduced into 
this country about twelve years ago. Its flower consists of a 
large involucrum containing a number of coloured petals, 
having, as well as the leaves, much resemblance to a 
Camellia. It grows freely in the greenhouse. 

(Bruniace^.) 

A family of from 50 to 60 species, natives of South Africa. 
They are small shrubs Avith heath-like, rigid, imbricate 
leaves. Flowers small, solitary, panicled, or in compact 
bractseform heads. Stamens 5. Pistil 1. 

Several species of Brunia have long been cultivated in 
Botanic Gardens. They do not possess any useful pro- 
perties. 



367 



THE MYKTLE AND BRAZIL NUT ALLIANCE. 

The Melastom Family. 

(Melastomace^.) 

Small trees, shrubs, frutlets, or rarely herbs; having 
opposite simple leaves with a more or less number of parallel 
veins passing from the base to the apex, the footstalk some- 
times swollen. Flowers terminal, solitary, or in racemes 
or loose panicles, sometimes umbel-like. Petals 4 or 5. 
Stamens 4 — 8 or 10. Filaments bent. Anthers long, at- 
tached by their side, opening by two pores at the apex. 
Fruit berry-like, pulpy, or firm and dry, opening at 
the apex, or sometimes partially valvate. Seeds small, 
numerous. 

This is an extensive family containing 1100 or more 
species. They are found mostly in moist tropical countries, 
a few in Australia, very few in North America or Northern 
India, and none in Europe. They are all harmless, and 
possess astringent but not noxious qualities, and generally 
impart a black colour to the mouth.* Some are used as 
dyes. Many are interesting plants in the hothouses of this 
country ; some having heath-like, and others magnificent, 
broad, elliptical leaves, 2 to 3 feet in length. In many the 
flowers are very small and inconspicuous ; others large and 
of showy colours, such as Medinilla magnifolia, Pleroma hete- 
romalla, P. Benthamiana, and many others, all of which 
however, are exceeded by those of P. macrantha, which are 
of a purple colour, and have a diameter of 3 inches. These 
and many other showy species are natives of Brazil, New 
Grenada, and other parts of tropical America. Rliexia vir- 
ginica, a pretty perennial plant, native of the United States, 
in favourable situations is hardy in this country. 

Jamaica Wild Eose {Blakea trinervia), is an epiphytal 



* Hence the name Mela, black, Stoma, mouth. 



368 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



climbing plant with elliptical three-nerved leaves and pretty 
pink flowers. 

The genus Memecylon, which consists of upwards of fifty 
species, was by some considered to constitute a distinct 
family, but is now admitted to be a section of Melastomacece. 
The principal of them consist of shrubs and small trees, 
having entire thickish leaves, and differing from Meldstoma 
by the veins being pinnate, often obscure. The cultivated 
species have the habit of myrtles. The leaves of M. tinc- 
torum produce a yellow dye, but it is not permanent. Those 
of M. umhellatmn are used with Sappan wood to produce a 
red dye. They are chiefly natives of India and other parts 
of tropical Asia. 

The Myrtle Family. 

(Myrtace^.) 

Lofty trees or shrubs. Leaves entire, opposite, or alter- 
nate, sometimes whorled, generally smooth and glossy, con- 
taining aromatic oil cells often visible as pellucid dots, many 
with a marginal vein. Flowers axillary or terminal, disposed 
in various ways. Calyx 4 or 5 cleft, sometimes circumcised, 
the upper part falling away like a cap. Petals 4 or 5, stamens 
generally numerous, free or united in several bundles, seated 
on an epigynous disk. Pistil simple. Fruit a fleshy drupe, 
or berry-like, or a dry hard capsule, opening by fissures in 
the apex. Seeds numerous. 

This interesting family contains about 1500 species. They 
are widely distributed over all tropical countries, and 
abound in Australia and New Zealand, but are found spa- 
ringly in temperate South America and Africa ; in Europe 
the family is represented by the myrtle. None are found 
in North America or Northern Asia. They contain an 
aromatic oil, and many are of great importance for timber, 
especially the genus Eucalyptus^ some of which are the 
largest and loftiest trees known. 

Pomegranate {Funica granatum). A bushy deciduous 
tree, 20 to 30 feet high, native of Northern India and 



THE MYRTLE FAMILY. 



369 



"Western Asia, extending westward to %h.e countries of the 
Mediterranean. It has been long cultivated in Spain, and 
other countries of the South of Europe; and is also now 
abundant in the West Indies and America. There are 
several varieties, generally having scarlet, red, or yellowish 
flowers. The fruit is usually about as large as a full 
sized apple, having a hard rind of a yellowish colour ; it 
contains a pulp that is highly prized for making cooling 
drinks. In Persia a wine is made from it in sufficient 
quantities for exportation. The rind as well as the flowers 
are used medically as a powerful astringent ; it contains a 
large quantity of tannin, which is used in the manufacture of 
Morocco leather. A decoction of the bark and root is a 
powerful remedy for the tape worm. The pomegranate is 
recorded as being introduced into this country in 1548. It 
grows freely under the protection of walls, but suffers in 
severe winters. In January, 1838, the whole in the neigh- 
bourhood of London were killed to the ground. The pome- 
granate is of ancient renown, being mentioned in the Bible 
as one of the fruits of the Land of Promise, and is also 
described by Theophrastus 300 years before the Christian 
era. 

Myrtle (Myrtus communis). This favourite shrub, although 
widely spread and cultivated in countries bordering on the 
Mediterranean, is nevertheless believed to be a native of 
Western Asia, where in Persia and other parts it is found 
wild. In favourable situations it forms a small tree 20 or 
more feet in height, but is often seen of a bushy or shrubby 
habit. Its wood is hard and mottled, often knotty, and is much 
esteemed in turnery. An oil is obtained from it, which is 
used in perfumery, the leaves and flowers constituting what 
is called sachet powders, pot pourris, &c. The fruit, which 
is a pulpy black berry, is used in some countries as an aro- 
matic condiment. It was introduced into this country about 
300 years ago, and in protected situations it is sufficiently 
hardy to withstand the ordinary winters of the climate of 
London. The myrtle is mentioned in the Bible, and is used 

B B 



S70 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



by the Jews as an ejnblem in the Feast of the Tabernacles, 
but only sprigs of the variety having three leaves in a whorl. 

Clove {Caryophyllus aromaticus). A handsome bushy 
evergreen tree, attaining the height of from 20 to 30 feet, 
having upright branches with smooth elliptical leaves 3 to 5 
inches in length. It is a native of the Moluccas, and presents 
a singular history of monopoly by the Dutch, who restricted 
the cultivation of the plant to the island of Amboyna, and 
vast quantities of cloves were destroyed by them at Amster- 
dam, in order to sustain a certain price. In time, however, 
the plant was introduced to other islands, and is now culti- 
vated in India, Ceylon, Mauritius, and the West Indies. The 
whole of the plant is aromatic and affords clove oil ; the 
clove, so well known in culinary use, is the unexpanded 
flower buds, and not, as generally supposed, the frmt. The 
name clove has been given to it on account of its resemblance 
to a nail, from the French word clou. 

Allspice {^Eugenia Pimento). A native of the West 
Indies ; it is a handsome growing bushy tree, with smooth 
elliptical leaves, which are highly aromatic. It is much cul- 
tivated in Jamaica, and other West Indian Islands, for the 
sake of its fruit, which is berry-like, about the size of a 
small pea, and growing in clusters. It is highly aromatic 
and pungent, and forms the well-known allspice used in 
cookery, confectionery, and medicine. 

GuaYa (Psidium pomife?^u?n Sindi P . pyriferwn). Small trees, 
originally natives of the West Indies, but now universally 
cultivated in most tropical countries. By some botanists 
they are considered as distinct species, and by others only as 
varieties of one species. The chief difference is in the shape 
of their fruit, one being apple and the other pear-shaped, of 
a yellow colour outside, the pulp red. They are highly 
esteemed, and come to this country as a preserve, under the 
name of Guava jelly and cheese. 

Purple Guava {Psidium Cattleyanum). Said to be a native 
of Brazil, but it first came to this country from China, about 
the year 1820. It is a strong growing species ; one of the 



THE MYRTLE FAMILY. 



S71 



original plants, about 20 feet higli, was in the Palm House at 
Kew some years ago, bearing abundance of fruit, which was 
excellent for dessert as also for preserving ; it is much more 
easy of cultivation than the preceding. 

Malay Apple {Eugenia malaccensis). A handsome strong- 
growing smooth-leaved tree, producing a profusion of scarlet 
flowers from the stem and branches, which is succeeded by 
abundance of fruit, about the size of a small apple, said to 
be esteemed in India and other countries of the East ; but, 
judging from fruit produced at Kew, it does not bear out 
what has been said in praise of it. 

Rose Apple {Eugenia Jambos). A smaller growing tree 
than the preceding, and with narrower leaA^es, producing its 
flowers at the end of the young branches. It is also a 
native of the East Indies, but is cultivated in Madeira, and 
many other warm countries. The fruit is about the size of 
a hen's egg, and is made into a preserve. E. Ugni, a 
native of Chili, has been introduced into this country within 
the last few years ; it is a small neat-leaved shrub, nearly 
hardy, and bears fruit abundantly in the greenhouse ; but its 
flavour is not such as to recommend it as a table fruit. 

Guava Berry (Eugenia lineata). A small tree, native of 
the island of Tortola. Its fruit is small, and is excellent for 
dessert; it is likewise used for a preserve, and forms a 
favourite cordial. 

Jambolan Tree (Eugenia Jambolana). A large tree, native 
of India, and cultivated in many parts ; its wood is hard and 
durable ; and the bark, which is used for dyeing, is astringent. 
The fruit is about the size of a pigeon's egg, and is univer- 
sally eaten. 

Cajaput oil (^Melaleuca cajaputi). A tree, native of the 
Eastern Archipelago, also found in Eastern and Northern 
Australia ; it has numerous coats of loose white bark, which 
is used for many purposes by the natives ; its most important 
product is the oil distilled from its leaves, which is of a green 
colour, and is in great repute as a stimulant ; it was at one 
time considered of great service in cholera. 

B B 3 



372 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Gum Trees. Few families surpass this in large timber 
trees, especially as represented by species of the genus Euca- 
lyptus. Their native coimtries are Australia and Tasmania, 
where they form large forests. There are not less than from 
100 to 150 species described, but they vary so extremely, in 
different kinds of leaves being produced on various branches 
of the same tree, thus presenting distinct specific characters, 
and in the varying nature of their bark, that the deter- 
mination of species is very difficult. In Tasmania they 
are described as rising to the height of from 200 to 400 feet, 
with a diameter of from 6 to 8 feet. Their naked gaunt 
stems, of 100 or 150 feet clear of branches, present the ap- 
pearance of a forest of artificial columns. These, sometimes 
blackened by the fires of the natives, and with the shaggy 
loose bark hanging about them, afford a grand but dismal 
spectacle. Trees of equal, if not larger size, are found in 
Victoria, a fallen one measuring 480 feet in length, while one 
still larger measured 80 feet in circumference. 

According to the nature of their bark, they receive various 
names, such as Stringy bark (^E. gigantea\ Iron bark {E. 
persicifolia), Blue gum {E. globulus)^ Peppermint tree (^E. 
amygdalind) ; some also receive the name of native mahogany, 
which, -with the kind called Grey Iron bark, &c., are im- 
ported to this country. The wood of some is very hard and 
durable, and so heavy as even to sink in water. Many yield 
gum E. resinifera^ a gum kino, and E. amygdalina, an oil 
which comes to this country in considerable quantity. E. 
mannifera and others yield sweet secretions analogous to 
" Manna." It is also stated that E. Gnnnii furnishes a great 
quantity of liquid that ferments and forms a kind of beer. 
They produce abundance of seeds which vegetate freely, and 
have, through the agency of man, become naturalized in 
many countries. As they are of robust growth, a " struggle 
for life" in the natural vegetation is the consequence. Many 
years ago large quantities were raised at Kew, and experi- 
ments tried with them in the open air ; they grew vigorously, 
and several species withstood ordinary winters, but the severe 



THE MYRTLE FAMILY. 373 

cold of January, 1838, destroyed them after having attained 
the height of 1 5 feet. Since then a species named E. poly- 
anthum has stood for the last twenty years in an exposed 
part of the garden ; it has attained the height of 20 and a 
girth of 4 feet. The young shoots are occasionally injured, 
but it is otherwise perfectly hardy, and might become a useful 
timber tree in the Southern parts of England. Australia 
also possesses other large trees of this family, such as 
species of Angophora, Callistemon, and Tristania. A species 
of the latter yields a fluid-like turpentine, from which circum- 
stance it has received the name of Turpentine tree. In 
New Zealand, Metrosideros rohusta and Callistemon ellipticum 
are found, the latter a remarkably large tree, growing in 
rocky places, and attaining the diameter of 4 or 5 feet ; the 
wood being extremely hard, takes a beautiful polish, and 
may be compared to Rosewood. Several other species of 
Metrosideros of epiphytal nature, growing to the tops of the 
highest trees, are also found ; like Ivy, they involve and 
ultimately destroy the trees they surround, but the union 
of their own stems forming a hollow tree, they entirely lose 
their epiphytal character. They are very ornamental green- 
house plants in this country, M. tomentosa, by its profusion 
of scarlet flowers, having a striking eflect when seen at a 
distance. 

A great number of this family from the Australian Colonies 
have from time to time been introduced into this country, the 
Kew collection in 1850 consisting of about 100 species. They 
are highly ornamental greenhouse shrubs, such as species of 
the genera Melaleuca, Calothamnus, Callistemon, Tristania, 
Bceclcia, and others. Many have flowers with long stamens 
standing out at right angles, which give the idea of a bottle 
brush. The genera of Myrtaceee were generally arranged 
under three sections — viz., Leptospermece, MyrtecB, and Cha- 
mcelauciecB. The latter has been supposed to have suflicient 
character to form a distinct family, consisting of about 50 
species of beautiful little shrubs, natives of Australia, of 
which several have been introduced into this country ; such 



374 



DOMESTIC BOTANT. 



as species of Calytrix, Chrysorrhoce, Genetyllis^ &c., most of 
them being showy greenhouse plants. 

The Mock Passion-flower Family. 

(Napoleone^.) 

Evergreen trees, with alternate smooth leathery leaves, 
with two glands on the petiole. Flowers solitary, in the axis 
of the leaves^* and sides of old branches, 2 to 3 inches in 
diameter, of a pale-yellow colour. Corolla membranous, 
spreading, 5-lobed, plicate, crumpled at the margin, becom- 
ing reflexed, concealing the leathery 5-parted calyx. 
Centre of the corolla furnished with two circles of numerous 
stamen-like appendages (like Passion-flowers). Stamens 
about 20, united nearly their whole length in five bundles 
(half being barren). Stigma 4 or 5 rayed. Fruit about 
the size and like a pomegranate. Ovary 5-celled. Seeds 
large, kidney-shaped. 

A small family, consisting of probably not more than three 
or four species, the princijDal representative being Napoleona 
imperialism a medium-sized tree, native of many parts of 
Western Tropical Africa. The peculiar and somewhat 
paradoxical character of its flowers has given rise to many 
different opinions as to its affinity, the corona and glands on 
the petioles seeming to indicate its relationship with Passion- 
flowers ; but it is now generally placed in the Myrtle alli- 
ance. It has no special qualities, except that the fruit is 
mucilaginous, and the rind contains tannin. 

The Anchovy Pear Family. 

(BARRINGTONIACEiE .) 

Large or small trees, rarely shrubs, generally with simple, 
alternate, large smooth leaves. Flowers sessile on the stems, 
or in corymbs, showy. Petals 4 or 5. Stamens free or 
wholly united by their bases in one or several parcels. 
Fruit bearing the permanent calyx on its apex, fleshy, with 



THE MONKEY POT FAMILY. 



875 



several bony seeds embedded in pulp, or dry and fibrous, 
containing one seed. 

About 100 species constitute this family, all of which are 
entirely confined within or near the tropics. 

Anchovy Pear {Ghnas cauliflora). An erect-growing tree, 
native of the West Indies. It has few branches, and attains 
the height of 40 or 50 feet, having large elliptical lanceolate 
leaves 2 to 3 feet in length. Its large and white flowers are 
seated on the stem below the leaves, and bear a fleshy 
fruit of considerable size, much resembling the Mango in 
taste ; in an unripe state it is often made into pickles. The 
plant is a favourite in the hothouses of this country, and 
may be considered the largest-leaved tree exogen, one at 
Kew having produced leaves 4 feet in length by 1 foot in 
breadth. 

Gustavia augusta and G. speciosa are also handsome-leaved 
trees, natives of tropical America, and are with other species 
of the genus grown in hothouses. 

Barringtonia speciosa, a large branching tree, attaining the 
height of 40 or 50 feet, and a girth of 10 to 14 feet; has 
large shining smooth leaves, and bears a profusion of pink 
flowers. It is a native of the Malayan, Polynesian, and other 
islands of the Pacific Ocean, growing on the sea-shores. It 
has a flat conical fruit, about 3 inches across the base, and 
somewhat 4 sided, consisting of solid fibry matter, having 
only one seed, and when dry is employed for fishing floats. 

Foetidia mauritiana. A considerable sized tree, native of 
the Mauritius, where it is called Stinking wood, and on 
account of the white ants not attacking it, it is used for the 
foundation of houses. 

The Monkey Pot Family. 

(LECYTHIDACEiE.) 

Generally large trees, having simple, alternate, lanceolate 
or elliptical leaves, with small deciduous stipules. Flowers 



S76 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



large, showy, sessile on the branches or terminal. Petals 6, 
seated on an urceolate or leafj calyx. Stamens numerous, 
three or a portion of them connected, forming a cucullate body, 
more or less of them sterile. Pistil simple. Fruit a hard- 
wooded capsule, often of large size, opening by a lid or entire, 
and globose, indehiscent, containing nut seeds, dry or im- 
mersed in pulp. 

This remarkable family consists of about 40 species of 
lofty trees, natives of the countries of the Amazon, Orinoco, 
and Rio Negro. They are singular for their large hard- 
wooded capsules. 

Brazil Nut (Bertholletia excelsa). A tree attaining the 
height of 100 to 150 feet, and about 3 or 4 feet in diameter. 
The leaves are broad, smooth, and nearly 2 feet in length. 
The fruit is produced on the upper branches, and when full 
grown are in the form of a perfect ball, from 4 to 6 inches 
in diameter ; it consists of a woody shell, containing a num- 
ber of three-sided rough seeds (nuts), about an inch and a 
half in length. The fruit when ripe falls to the ground. 
The nuts are obtained by splitting the shell, and are im- 
ported to this country chiefly from Brazil. 

Sapucaia Nuts (Lecythis Sahucajo). A large tree, with a 
woody fruit about 6 inches in diameter, of an urn shape, 
having a lid about 2 inches in diameter, Avhich when ripe 
falls away, allowing the seeds to fall out ; the whole having 
the appearance of artificial workmanship. The nuts are 
nearly similar to the last, but rather longer. 

Monkey Pot {Lecythis ollaria). Also a large tree, but with 
small leaves, not unlike an elm. The capsule is of the same 
character as the preceding, but the nuts have a degree of bit- 
terness. The tree is remarkable for having a thick bark of 
numerous fine layers like paper, that separate freely, and are 
used by the natives as wrappers for cigars and other purposes. 
In British Guiana its timber is valuable on account of its 
being proof against the borings of sea-worms and the at- 
tacks of barnacles. 

Cannon-ball Tree {Couroupita guianensis). A large tree, 



THE MOCK ORANGE FAMILY. 



S77 



remarkable for its fruit, resembling a ball 6 or 8 inches in 
diameter, circumscribed by a mark ; the seeds are embedded 
in pulp, which, when fresh, is of an agreeable flavour, but 
when dried or exposed to the air, has a most abominable 
odour, which it retains for years. 

The Mangrove Family. 

(Ehizophorace^.) 

Trees or shrubs, growing on muddy sea-shores, having op- 
posite simple leaves, sometimes with convolute stipules. 
Flowers solitary, on axillary or terminal footstalks. Petals 
and stamens rising from the calyx, the parts varying in 
number. Pistilum 1 short. Fruit woody, indehiscent, 1- 
seeded, crowned by the permanent calyx. 

About 20 species constitute this family, all being natives 
within or near the tropics, where they form impenetrable 
barriers for hundreds of miles along the mud shores of low 
coasts, rising to the height of 15 feet or more, rooting from 
the branches like the Banyan Tree of India. They are also 
remarkable in their fruit germinating while hanging from 
the branch, and producing a root ultimately falling into the 
mud and forming a new centre. By these means they ex- 
tend their domain seawards, their roots and branches inter- 
lacing in every direction. The exhalations from Mangrove 
swamps are of a most unhealthy nature, causing malaria and 
fever. Oysters and other shellfish attach themselves to 
these plants, thus verifying the once-doubted assertion that 
oysters grew on trees. They have no special virtues, except 
that in some parts the bark is used for tanning and dyeing. 
The typical species of the family is Rhizophora Mangle. 

The Mock Orange Family. 

(Philadelphace^. ) 

Deciduous shrubs, with simple opposite leaves. Flowers 
axillary or in terminal racemes or cymes. Calyx adherent, 



S78 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



witli 4 to 10 divisions. Petals the same number. Stamens 
numerous, in two rows, seated on the calyx. Styles distinct, 
or united. Fruit capsular, consisting of 4 or 10 many-seeded 
cells. 

About 20 or 30 species are recorded as belonging to 
this family, being widely spread over the Northern temperate 
zone, and represented in Europe by the well-known shrub 
called Mock Orange or Syringa {Philadelphus coronarius), 
which, with P. granclijiorus and a few other species, are orna- 
mental garden shrubs, conspicuous for their white flowers. 
Deutzia scabra and D. gracilis are natives of Japan. The 
first is a hardy shrub, the leaves of which are covered with 
curious scales that are beautiful objects under the micro- 
scope. The latter is a smaller and more tender species, and 
has become a favourite as an early flowering greenhouse 
plant. 

THE BEGONIA AND GOURD ALLIANCE. 
The Bastard Hemp Family. 

(Datiscace^.) 

Tall herbaceous plants or trees, with alternate much- 
divided leaves Flowers in axillary racemes or terminal in 
panicles (not coloured), unisexual. Fruit a small capsule, 
opening at the top. 

Not more than four species are known of this family. 
They are widely scattered over the Northern hemisphere, 
the principal representative being Datisca caniiabina, a 
hemp-like plant, native of the South of Europe, possessing 
no special qualities, except being bitter and purgative, and 
its roots containing a kind of starch, called Datiscine. In 
India and Java the family is represented by Tetrameles 
indica, a large tree, having simple acuminate, sometimes 
lobed leaves. 

Botanists differ much in opinion respecting the alliance of 
this small family ; some place it near Besedacece, but Dr. 
Lindley and others consider it to be more allied to the Gourd 
family. 



THE GOURD FAMILY. 



379 



The Gourd Family. 

(CUCURBITACE^.) 

Annual or perennial, tuberous rooted, trailing or tendril 
climbing plants, with soft porous stems, often attaining a 
great height. Leaves alternate, generally heart-shaped, entire, 
more or less lobed, or palmate. Flowers unisexual, generally 
yellow or white, axillary, solitary, or in umbel-like panicles. 
Corolla 5-parted, or united (gamopetalous), entire or fringed. 
Stamens generally 5, free, or more or less united. ' Pistils 
short. Stigma lobed, thick and spongy. Fruit succulent 
and fleshy, globose or cylindrical, varying in size from a 
small berry to from ,2 to 3 feet in diameter ; or in length 
from 2 inches to 6 feet ; containing numerous flat seeds em- 
bedded in fleshy pulp, rarely 1-seeded. 

Upwards of 270 species are enumerated of this family. 
They are chiefly natives of the tropics of both hemispheres. 
In Europe, and other parts of the north temperate regions, 
they are represented by the genus Bryonia, but are sparingly 
found in the southern hemisphere, except the culinary kinds, 
which, by cultivation, are widely distributed over the tem- 
perate and warm regions of the earth. 

Cucumber (Cucumis sativa). According to Bible history 
this well-known vegetable appears to have been extensively 
cultivated in Egypt,* in the time of Moses, and still continues 
to be so, as well as in many other countries at the pre- 
sent day. Gherkins are simply the fruit gathered in a 
young state, and form a well-known pickle. The principal 
constituent of " West India Pickles," is the fruit of Cucumis 
Anguria, supposed to be originally a native of tropical 
West Africa, but now extensively cultivated in the West 
Indies, and many parts of tropical America. 

Melon (^Cucumis melo). This, like the cucumber, is also 
of ancient fame. There are a great many varieties cultivated 



Numbers, chap. xi. ver. 5. 



880 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



throughout temperate and tropical countries. The finest are 
said to be the melons of Bokhara. The melon is supposed 
to have been first introduced from Egypt to Rome, from 
thence to France in 1495, and after that to England. 

Water Melon (Cucumis Citrullns). This is extensively 
grown in hot dry countries for its refreshing juice. It is not 
much cultivated in this country, but may sometimes be seen 
in the fruit shops, being imported from Spain and Portugal. 
It is supposed to be the " melons" of Egypt, the loss of which 
in the Avilderness the Israelites regretted. 

Pumpkin Gourd (Cucurbita Pepo). Extensively cul- 
tivated as a culinary vegetable. 

Vegetable Marrow {Cucurhita ovifera). Supposed to be a 
native of Persia. It is an excellent culinary vegetable. 

Melon Pumpkin {Cucurhita maxima). The largest fruit of 
the Gourd family, or of any other, some having been grown 
in this country weighing not less than from 200 to 240 
pounds, and measuring from 6 to near 8 feet in circumference. 
Many other varieties of the Gourd tribe are cultivated for 
food throughout warm countries, and the hard rinds of the 
fruits are converted into household bowls, dishes, &c. Amongst 
the most remarkable may be mentioned the Bottle Gourd 
i^Lagenaria vulgaris)^ which grows abundantly in Egypt and 
Arabia, and has been introduced into the West Indies. Its 
fruit, which is sometimes nearly 6 feet long, is shaped like a 
bottle, and often used as such. The Club Gourd is a variety 
of this, but is more tapering, in the form of a club. 

Choco {^Sechium edule). A common plant, cultivated in 
tropical America and the West Indies, for the sake of its 
fruit, which is about 4 inches in length, 3 inches in dia- 
meter, of a green colour, and furrowed of a delicate white 
inside ; it is used as a vegetable. 

Colocynth (Cucumis Colocynthus). A native of Palestine, 
and some parts of North Africa. The fruit is about the size 
of an orange, and may frequently be seen in show bottles in 
druggists' shop-windows. It is used in medicine. The soft 



THE GOUED FAMILY. 



881 



part of the fruit is poisonous and highly purgative ; the 
seeds are nutty and nutritious, and used as food in some 
parts of North Africa. The Colocynth is in all probability 
the " wild gourds" spoken of in 2 Kings, chap. iv. ver. 39 — 
40 ; as also the vine of Sodom, Deuteronomy, chap, xxxii. 
ver. 32 ; as well as the apples of Sodom, described by Jose- 
phus, " as resembling edible fruit in colour, but on being 
plucked by the hand, are dissolved into smoke and ashes." 
(See Solanum.) It is also supposed to be the fruit that 
poisoned the soldiers of Xenophon. 

Squirting Cucumber (Ecbalmm agreste). This plant has 
the same habit and appearance as the cucumber, trailing on 
the ground but devoid of tendrils. It is a native of the 
South of Europe, and has long been cultivated in Botanic 
Gardens as a curiosity. The fruit is about 2 inches in 
length, and when ripe hangs down at an acute angle with the 
footstalk ; on touching it, it immediately parts from the foot- 
stalk, and ejects, with considerable force, a number of seeds 
and a liquid, to a distance of two or three yards, often striking 
the unwary toucher in the face, and making him start with 
surprise. The juice is of a highly poisonous nature, and 
when concentrated forms the powerful drug called elaterium, 
which is obtained by pressure of the seeds. 

Snake Gourd [Trichosanthus anguina). The fruit of this 
is cylindrical, and about 3 feet in length ; but in the Serpent 
Cucumber or Viper Gout d^Trichosanthus colubrina), the length 
attained is often from 5 to 6 feet, and about 1 inch in dia- 
meter, having the appearance of a rope. If the young fruit 
be inserted in a large glass jar or bottle, the latter will be- 
come filled by a succession of coils, exactly resembling a 
museum specimen of a snake in a bottle. 

Cocoon Antidote (Feuilloea cordifolia), A native of Ja- 
maica, having palmate leaves, and climbing to a great height 
over trees. The fruit is globular, 4 or 5 inches in diameter, 
and contains flat seeds, larger and thicker than broad beans, 
and is used for the cure of snake-bites. An oil is also 



382 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



expressed from them, but more abundantly from an allied 
species native of Peru. 

Telfairia pedata. A native of the Eastern Coast of Africa, 
and found at Zanzibar ; introduced into this country by way 
of the Mauritius. It is a tall climbing plant like the pre- 
ceding, having dark green palmate leaves ; its fruit is from 
2 to 8 feet in length, 8 to 10 inches thick, and furrowed. 
The seeds are like those of Feuillcjea, each fruit containing 
several hundred seeds, which yield a fine oil having the 
flavour of almonds. A plant has been grown to a great 
length in the hothouses at Kew. 

Towel or Sponge Gourd {Luffa u^gyptiaca). A native of 
Egypt, and now grown in many parts of Africa and the West 
Indies. Its fruit is 1 foot or more in length, and 2 or 3 
inches in diameter, having a thin skin and filled with spongy 
fibre, which, when the skin is removed, is used for a skin- 
rubber and many other domestic purposes. 

Bryony (^Bryonia dioica). A common British plant that 
climbs over hedges and adorns them with its beautiful fruit 
in autumn. Children should be cautioned not to eat the 
fruit, as it is highly poisonous. It has thick, fleshy, long 
tuberous roots, often double or made to grow so in order to 
convert them into the appearance of a man, and are called 
mandrakes, which are occasionally to be obtained as curio- 
sities. It is a dangerous drastic purgative ; indeed, the 
whole family may be considered as such, and it is only culti- 
vation and cooking that render many culinary sorts harmless. 

Gerrardanthus megarrhiza. A remarkable plant, native of 
Natal, having the habit of Bryonia, consisting of a circular 
tuber corm lying on the surface of the ground, which is 3 or 
more inches in diameter, and 1 to 2 feet thick. , It is acrid 
and bitter. 



THE FLOWERING NETTLE FAMILY. 883 



The Begonia Family. 

(Begoniace^.) 

Herbs or succulent-stemmed fruticuls ; erect or creeping, 
like a rhizome, or sometimes with tuberous roots. Leaves 
alternate, entire, lobed, palm.ate or digitate, their base always 
oblique-cordate, smooth or villose ; often red or blotched of 
"various colours. Flowers unisexual, 2 to 3 or more in an 
umbellate form, or terminal in axillary spikes. Stamens 
numerous. Stigmas 3, 2-lobed. Fruit a winged, membra- 
nous, three-sided capsule, containing numerous small seeds. 

This family probably amounts to about 160 species. They 
are found throughout tropical America and the East and 
West Indies. It was long supposed none were native 
of Africa, but within the last few years tropical Western 
Africa has afforded several species. They do not possess 
any peculiar qualities, but are highly ornamental hothouse 
plants, about 100 species, and their varieties being known in 
cultivation. The readiness with which they hybridize has 
brought out many remarkable varieties, with singular 
blotched leaves, some a foot or more in diameter. 

FLOWERING NETTLE AND EYENING PRIMROSE 
ALLIANCE. 

The Flowering Nettle Family. 

(LOASACE^.) 

Small shrubs or herbs, annual or perennial, sometimes 
twining climbers, having opposite alternate, simple, or cut 
leaves, furnished with stinging hairs. Flowers solitary, on 
axillary foot-stalks, generally yellow and showy. Petals 5 
or 10, in two rows, often folded, hood-like. Stamens nu- 
merous, in two rows, of different lengths, free or in bundles. 
Pistil simple or divided. Fruit a dry or succulent capsule. 

Of this family about 70 species are known, all being 
natives of Mexico and other warm parts of America. They 



384 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



have no special qualities, but several are ornamental garden 
plants, such as Bartonia aurea, Blumenhachia insignis, as 
well as several species of Loasa. Illairea canarinoides is a 
remarkable plant, climbing like the Hop, and producing 
curious showy pendulous flowers on long foot-stalks. 

The Water Chestnut Family. 

(Haloragace^.) 

Small herbs, with finely-cut or toothed leaves, growing 
(floating) in water ; or with erect stems and filiform leaves, 
rarely sub-shrubs with opposite leaves. Flowers small, in- 
conspicuous, variable in number of parts. Fruit small or 
large, hard, and horned. 

From 50 to 60 species are recorded of this family. They 
are generally insignificant plants, all widely distributed 
throughout the temperate regions of both hemispheres, and 
are represented in this country by the two species of Water- 
Milfoil {Myriojjliyllum), and the common Mares-Tail {Hip- 
puris vulgaris). 

Water Chestnut or Caltrops {Trapa natans). A native of 
the South of Europe, growing in water, having creeping 
stems producing tufts of hair -like roots, from the centre of 
which rise foot-stalks with floating, triangular toothed leaves. 
The flowers are small. The lobes of the calyx 2 or 4, in- 
creasing in size, and with its tube involving the ovary, 
which becomes a hard, horned fruit about the size of a 
chestnut. They contain much farinaceous starch, forming a 
considerable article of food ; in Italy they are known by the 
name of Jesuit Chestnuts, and in France as Water Chest- 
nuts. In Cashmere the seeds of T. hispinosa form an 
important article of food to a large population. T. hicornis 
is also extensively used for food in China. 

The stiff" horn-like projections of these fruits convey to 
the mind the idea of Caltrops ; hence they are called Water 
Caltrops {T. hicornis). The chief exception to their aquatic 
character are some species of the genus Haloragis ; small 



THE EVENING PRIMROSE FAMILY. 385 



shrublet plants, with opposite leaves, chiefly natives of New 
Zealand, H. Cercodia having been introduced to Kew during 
Captain Cook's first voyage in 1772. 

The Evening Primrose Family. 

(Onagrace^.) 

Small erect or decumbent shrubs or fruticuls, or more 
generally annual or perennial herbs. Leaves simple, alter- 
nate or opposite. Flowers solitary, axillary or in terminal 
racemes. Calyx 4-lobed. Petals 4, twisted before expan- 
sion, equal or unequal (as in Lopezia). Stamens generally 4 
or 8, rarely 1 only. Pistil 1, with a round club or 4-lobed. 
Petal like stigma. Fruit a round or oblong, many-seeded, 
fleshy berry, or a cylindrical dry 4-valved capsule. Seeds 
numerous, naked or with a feathery appendage. 

Nearly 500 species constitute this family. They are widely 
dispersed ; the herbaceous species, many of which are annuals, 
are chiefly confined to temperate countries of the northern 
hemisphere ; the shrubby species to Mexico, Chili, Brazil, 
and New Zealand. In this country the family is represented 
by several species of Willow Herb (Epilobium). They have 
no special useful properties ; but some are highly ornamental 
out-door plants, such as many species of OEnothera^ Clarkia 
pulchella, and others natives of California and Oregon. The 
Evening Primrose {CEnothera hiennis) is a native of Virginia, 
and now naturalized in many parts of Europe, being culti- 
vated in Germany for the sake of its roots, which are used as 
a vegetable. The most attractive of the family are species of 
Fuchsia ; the first, known as F. coccinea, native of Chili, was 
introduced in 1788. In 1823, F. decussata, also a native of 
Chili, was introduced, and other species successively followed ; 
and between that time and 1837, the fine Mexican species, 
F. fulgens, F. cordata, and F. corymhijiora. Since then nu- 
merous fine varieties, with showy flowers, have been raised. 
The fruit of F. corymhiflora is wholesome and not unpala- 
table. 

C C 



386 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



CACTUS AND GOOSEBEERY ALLIANCE. 

The Cactus Family. 

(Cactace^.) 

Fleshy (sarco cauls), leafless (rarely leafy) plants, varying 
extremely in size and form, being globose, conical, columnar 
or flat, generally formed of 3 or more angles, or many longi- 
tudinal ribs, on wliich are seated bundles of spines. The 
stems sometimes with articulated, convex or round branches 
(as Opuntia), or flat and leafy (as Pliyllocactus and Uj^iphyUinn); 
sometimes very slender, pendulous and cord-like. Flowers 
solitary, sessile, regular, or sometimes oblique, and 2-lipped. 
Petals 5 , or numerous, the exterior ones becoming colourless, 
and forming the sepals of the calyx. Stamens numerous, 
attached on the interior tube of the calyx or corolla ; regular 
or wholly inclined to one side. Pistil one, or its apex lobed 
or consisting of rays. Fruit pulpy, berry or fig-like ; often 
with fascicles of prickles on the exterior, containing numerous 
seeds. 

The Continent and islands of America must be considered 
the headquarters of this extensive family ; for although 
several species abound wild in many parts of Africa, Asia, 
and even in the South of Europe, and being remarkable 
in appearance are not likely to escape observation, yet 
they are not noticed or described by ancient writers; it 
may be inferred therefore that they are not indigenous to the 
eastern hemisphere, but had their origin in America. In 
that continent and its contiguous islands they are found 
widely distributed, extending from Oregon and the Eocky 
Mountains in the North, to Chili and Paraguay in the South; 
they grow on rocks, in dry and often very hot places ; the 
common Melocactus abounds on the rocky shores of the West 
India islands. 

The family is remarkable for containing in their fleshy 
substance a great quantity of solid rough grains (as may be 



THE CACTUS FAMILY. 



387 



seen by the microscope), termed raphides; and these are so 
abundant that, on biting a portion, they convey the idea of 
cucumber dipped in sand. Their juice contains a red colour- 
ing matter, which constitutes the basis of cochineal. 

Although from the leafless and unplant-like appearance of 
many species of this family, they in no way resemble the 
Gooseberry family, the two are nevertheless closely allied in 
a botanical point of view, and the fruit of many of the Cactse 
is as much esteemed and as abundant in warm as the 
Gooseberry is in temperate countries. They became known 
in this country as curious garden plants about the end of the 
seventeenth and beginning of the eighteenth centuries ; and 
in the early years of the present century the number of in- 
troduced species recorded amounted to 24, known under 
the popular names of Melon Thistle, Torch Thistle, Indian 
Fig, and Creeping Cereus. About fifty years ago, several 
showy species were introduced from Brazil, such as Cereus 
speciosissimus^ C. speciosus, Epiphyllum truncatumy and 
others. 

About the year 1830, private collections were formed in 
this country, and through the rivalship of a few rich amateur 
cultivators, their value rose highly — ten, fifteen, and even 
twenty guineas being often given for individual plants. This 
led to speculation, and great importations took place from 
Mexico and other parts of America, to this country, as well 
as to Germany ; and cultivators were not slow in giving 
them specific names. They also became objects of study to 
several botanists, who named and described them indepen- 
dent of one another, thus creating a number of apparent 
species, and causing much confusion in their names. The 
number botanically described amounts to above 800 ; some 
trade lists enumerate above 780 as being cultivated. During 
the same period, the Kew collection was increased ; but after 
much trouble and expense, the number in its best days of 
what was considered to be really distinct species, amounted 
to only 260, being about one-third of the number said to be 
cultivated in Germany. 

c c 2 



388 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



The extreme variation in tlie different groups of species 
admits of their being readily arranged under sections, ^vhich 
some botanists consider should be regarded as distinct 
genera. The following are examples : — 

1. Opiintia (Indian Fig). 

Stems decumlent or erect, branching ; branches consisting of 
flat, convex, or round groicths, jointed end to end. Flowers 
generally yellow and rosulate. 

Indian or Prickly Pear (Opuntia Tuna and 0. Ficus in- 
dica). Tall growing species are naturalized in Madeira, North 
and West Africa, and many parts of Asia, giving a picturesque 
appearance to the old walls of Jerusalem. They attain the 
height of 20 feet, and are hard, Avoody, and spinose, forming 
impenetrable hedges, as is also the case with other allied species. 
Their fruits are of a red or yellow colour, being about the 
size and shape of the common fig ; and are esteemed for their 
cooling juice, which contains sugar. These plants, w^ith 
0. vulgaris, abound on the lava slopes of Mount Etna, and are 
the pioneers of cultivation, their roots penetrating and break- 
ing up the lava, the decayed parts in time forming a rich 
vegetable mould, on which vineyards are planted. The fruit 
is collected in large quantities, and sold in the markets, form- 
ing an extensive article of food to the inhabitants. It grows 
abundantly in other parts of the South of Europe, and in 
Algeria, from which place the fruits are imported to this 
country. When old, the fibrous parts of the joints of the 
stems become hard and firm, and are made into ornamental 
articles. 

Cochineal Plant {Opuntia cochinellifera). A native of 
Mexico, where it is cultivated to a large extent, in what are 
called the Nopal Plantations, for the breeding of the Cochi- 
neal insect ; but 0. Tuna and other species are also grown 
for the same purpose. They are now cultivated in Madeira 
and Teneriffe, from w^hich places a considerable quantity 
of cochineal comes to this country. The cochineal insect 
is like a house-bug, and has the same appearance on the 



THE CACTUS FAMILY. 



389 



plant as the white flocky blight on apple trees, or the Coccus 
insect^ called mealy bug, often seen in hot-houses. The 
annual importation of cochineal for the years 1867, 1868, and 
1869 averaged over 34,800 cwt. 

It forms the finest scarlet carmine dye. The living plant 
and insect are to be seen in the Royal Gardens at Kew. 

2. Cereus (Torch Thistles). 
Stems erect, arborescent or trailing, some epiphytal ; cylin- 
drical^ flat, or three, four, five or more angled ; or consist- 
ing of many ribs. Flowers tubular, often large and of bril- 
liant colours. 

Creeping Cereus (C^r^MS flagelliformis). This well-known 
domestic window plant is a native of Peru, and is recorded 
as being introduced as early as 1690. 

Night-flowering Cereus (^Cereus grandiflorvs). A native 
of Jamaica and other West India Islands ; also early intro- 
duced. It is remarkable for its large white and partially 
straw-coloured flowers, that open in the evening and close 
early in the morning. It is now, however, surpassed by the 
flowers of C. MacDonaldicE, a native of Honduras, intro- 
duced into this country about twenty years ago, the flowers 
of which are also of only few hours' duration ; when fully 
expanded it is more than a foot in diameter, thas vieing with 
the Victoria Lily in size, and when eight or ten flowers are 
open in one night (as with a plant at Kew), the sight is mag- 
nificent. This, like G. grandiflorus, is a creeping epiphytal 
species. 

C. speciosus and C. speciosissimus, natives of Brazil, have 
brilliant red and crimson flowers, and are occasionally seen at 
horticultural flower-shows. 

C. Pitaya, and other erect angular-stemmed sjiecies, grow 
abundantly in Western Mexico and other warm parts of 
America. The fruits of many are luscious, and like the 
Indian fig, some are of a red colour, which, when many are 
eaten, colours the secretions of the body. 

C. chilensis. A tall-growing species, which loses its sue- 



390 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



culencj, and in age becomes hard- wooded light timber; it is 
used in Chili for house building and other purposes. 

C. giganteiis. A native of New Mexico, growing in dry 
arid places. It has a cylindrical fluted stem, consisting of 
about twenty ridges, and rises like a column to the height of 
50 or 60 feet, having the appearance of posts ; the older ones 
branch at the top, the branches being erect, and when seen 
at a distance give the idea of a toasting-fork. The fruit is 
analogous to the Indian fig. 

C. senilis. Also a native of Mexico, in the district of 
Real del Monte, Avhere it grows in a hot valley, called Terra 
Calientes. It has a tall cylindrical stem, consisting of many 
ridges, growing to the height of 20 or 30 feet, with a dia- 
meter of 9 to 10 inches. In 1846 about 100 plants were 
received at Kew, varying in size from 1 to 3 feet, while three 
specimens were from 8 to 12 feet high. In the greater number 
of them the roots were on one side at a right angle with the 
stem, clearly showing that they were grown in crevices of 
rocks. The whole aspect of the plant is of a grey colour, 
the top part being furnished with long white hairs and 
spines, which has led to its being called the Old Man Cactus. 
The stem of this plant contains a large quantity of oxalate 
of lime in small sand-like grains, which renders it very 
heavy and brittle. 

3. Epiphyllum. 
Stems hrancliing, composed of short truncate joints. Petals 
of the flower unequal in size, forming an oblique bilabiate 
floiver. 

This section is represented by E. truncatiim and E. Eus- 
sellia, natives of Brazil, and growing on trees. They have 
been long introduced into this country, and are much cul- 
tivated as ornamental plants for their crimson flowers. 

4. Echinocactus (Hedgehog Cactae). 

Plants of more or less oblong, globose, conical shape, rarely 
plain or few angled, generally composed of numerous project- 



THE CACTUS FAMILY. 



391 



ing ridges, furnished with straight or hooked hard spines, apex 
generally concave, from round the centre of which rise the 
flowers, being either white, yellow, or crimson, and opening 
successively for several days during sunshine. 

This group consists of a number of species, varying con- 
siderably in size, some not exceeding a few inches in diameter 
and height, and others increasing in size even to 3 feet in 
diameter and 10 feet in height, the largest being represented 
by E. visnaga, of which two plants were received at Kew, 
about twenty-five years ago, from St. Luis Potosi, one 
measuring 4^ feet in height, and 2f feet in diameter, weigh- 
ing 713 lb. ; the other 9 feet in height, rather more thaA 
3 feet in diameter, and weighing about one ton. 

The whole of EchinocactcB are of slow growth, living to a 
great age, plants being observed to differ little in appear- 
ance during a period of 24 years. Their substance con- 
sists entirely of soft fleshy pulp, containing a quantity of 
water, which is used where water cannot be obtained, their 
great abundance affording an inexhaustible supply. Mules 
and other animals break them up and suck them. The 
Indians also scoop them out and form them into kettles for 
cooking their food. 

5. Melocactus (Melon Cactae). 

Plants consisting of ridges like Echinocactus, hut differing 
in its flowers, which are small, being home amongst a thick, 
compact mass of red-coloured woolly fibres and prickles, vary- 
ing, according to age, from a few inches to nearly a foot in 
length, and two or three inches in diameter, forminy a turban- 
like head. 

The principal species of this group is Melocactus communis, 
a native of the rocky coast of many of the West Indig, islands, 
and is well known for its curious head of flowers, called 
Turk's cap, or Pope's head. 

6. Mamillaria. 
Plants globose, oblong or cylindrical^ seldom exceeding a foot 



392 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



in height, composed of numerous projecting tubercles, like teats, 
of various lengths and forms, hearing on their apex a tuft of 
hairs and spines of a yellow or white colour ; often being very 
dense, and have been compared to balls of wool or cotton. 
They generally grow in tufts, and possess no peculiar qua- 
lities ; their flowers are small, and the fruit of many, which 
is of red colour, has the flavour of fried beef. 

7. Rhipsalis (Mistleto Cactse). 

Stems slender, cord-like, pendulous or suberect and branched, 
shmb-like ; branches cylindrical, angular or flat and leaf-like, 
jointed with the stem and to one another. Flowers small. 
Fruit white or red, the size of currants. 

About a dozen species belong to this genus ; they are 
found growing on trees, extending from Mexico to South 
Brazil. 

R. Cassytha, a native of the West Indies, where it grows 
from 1 to 6 feet long, hanging from the branches of trees 
like cords. This, with several other species, judging by 
their appearance, seem to have little relationship with Cactae 
as generally seen ; but they agree in the character of their 
flowers, fruit, and mode of growth. The white berries have 
some resemblance to Mistleto. 

As already stated, it was generally believed that Cactse 
were not originally indigenous to the Eastern hemisphere ; 
but during the last fifteen years several species of Rhipsalis 
have been found undoubtedly wild in several parts of Tropical 
Africa, as well as in Mauritius and Natal. 

8. Pereskia (Barbadoes Gooseberry). 

Stems ivoody, leafy, climbing or trailing like brambles, and 
furnished with strong spines. Flowers rosulate pink. 

The principal species is P. aculeata, a native of the 
West Indies. It differs from the rest of the Cactus family in 
having true leaves. The fruit is about the size of a goose- 
berry, and is made into a preserve. P. grandiflorus is a 



THE GOOSEBERRY FAMILY. 



393 



Strong-growing species, with a hard woody stem, several 
inches in diameter, and densely covered with long black 
spines of formidable character. 

The above are the principal divisions under which Cactae 
are arranged ; several individual species have been charac- 
terized as distinct genera, but they are only of botanical 
interest. The family is well represented at Kew. 

(HOMALIACE^.) 

A family of about 30 species of trees or shrubs, having 
alternate leaves, and Cactus-like flowers (furnished with 
glands), in spikes, panicles, or racemes. 

They are natives of the tropical regions of both hemi- 
spheres, and hold an intermediate position between Cactaceae 
and Loasaceae. They have no special uses, except that the 
roots of some are said to be astringent. 

The Gooseberry Family. 

(Grossulariaceje.) 

Shrubs, with or without spines. Leaves alternate, simple, 
more or less angular or lobed. Flowers solitary or in spikes 
or racemes, furnished with small bracts. Petals and stamens 
5 each. Fruit a pulpy berry, bearing the remains of the 
calyx on its apex, containing a few or numerous seeds. 

About one hundred species constitute this family, all 
natives of the Northern hemisphere, being found in Europe, 
North America, and temperate Asia. The whole are con- 
tained in the genus Rihes. 

Gooseberry (^Eibes grossularid). This well-known fruit 
needs no description. 

There are many varieties cultivated. In Scotland they 
are called Grosets or Grosards, which is derived from the 
French, meaning rough, rude, and large ; it being the 
largest berry. 

Black Currant (Rihes nigrum)^ Eed Currant (R. ruhnim)^ 
and White Currant, a variety of the latter. These, with the 



894 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



gooseberry, are natives of this country, but have been 
greatly improved from the wild state by cultivation. The 
currant takes its name from the grape currant, which at 
first came from the Island of Corinth. Several species, such 
as a. sangm?ieum, i?. aureum, and B. speciosum, natives of 
North America, are highly ornamental garden shrubs. 

The Escallonia Family. 

(ESCALLONIACEJE.) 

Evergreen shrubs or rarely small trees. Leaves alternate, 
simple, smooth, or with lepidote viscid scales, or resinous, 
often with toothed glandular margins. Flowers solitary, in 
spikes, racemes, or corymbs, generally red or white. Petals 
5. Stamens 5 or 6. Fruit a capsule or berry, crowned with 
the persistent calyx. 

This family consists of about 60 species, the greater 
number belonging to the genus Escallonia, natives chiefly of 
South America, principally Chili, and extending to the 
Straits of Magellan. In Tasmania the family is represented 
by the beautiful laurel-leaved, small tree, Anoptens glandu- 
losa, and in New Zealand by Quintinia serrata, also a small 
tree covered with lepidote scales; and in North America by 
the pretty garden shrub, Itea virginica. They possess no 
particular qualities, except that some of the resinous- leaved 
species of Escallonia emit a strong odour, especially after 
rain or on calm summer evenings, so much like the smell of 
pigs that, at Kew, a piggery at a considerable distance from 
where the plant was growing was innocently blamed as a 
nuisance. 

The Myrobalan Family. 

(COMBRETACE^.) 

Trees, climbing or twining ampelids. Leaves simple, 
alternate or partially opposite, sometimes with glands on the 
foot-stalk. Flowers in spikes or racemes, axillary or termi- 



THE MYKOBALAN FAMILY. 



395 



nal (some unisexual). Petals 4 or 5, or absent. Stamens 
8 to 10 or more, generally longer than tlie petals. Pistil 
simple. Fruit a fleshy drupe, or dry and winged, containing 
an Almond-like kernel. 

This family, of which there are about 200 species, are 
wholly confined to the Tropics. They have no special medi- 
cinal qualities, but are of an astringent nature. 

Pentaptera glabra. A tree, native of Pegu and other 
parts of India, attaining the height of 60 to 80 feet, and it 
is said 6 to 8 feet in diameter. The wood is hard and 
durable, and is employed, like teak, for shipbuilding. A kind 
of lime is obtained by calcining the bark and wood, which is 
preferred to other lime for chewing with the Betel nut. 

Myrobalans are the fruit of Terminalia Chehula and 
T. Bellerica. They are large trees, natives of India, charac- 
terized by having narrow lance-like leaves growing in tufts 
on the top of the branches, with elliptical fruit from 1 to 2 
inches in diameter, slightly angular, colour of a greenish, 
yellow, and when dried of a brownish black. They are used 
for tanning and dyeing black, and at least 2000 tons or more 
have been known to be imported to this country yearly. 
The fruit of T. Catappa has kernels like an Almond, and 
is eatable. 

The genera Combretum, Foivrea, and others contain a 
number of species, with hard-wooded climbing stems, which 
branch and extend to a great length, many of them having 
showy flowers. About 14 species have been cultivated at 
Kew, the most splendid being Poivrea coccinea^ a native of 
Madagascar, having large racemes of scarlet flowers. 

Combretum guayca. A native of the countries on the 
Orinoco. It is a strong climber, and is remarkable for 
containing a great quantity of gummy matter, which exudes 
in abundance on the bark being cut, and is used by the car- 
penters of Angostura for the same purpose as animal glue. 
Another species is C. butyrosum^ a native of South East Africa, 
producing a peculiar substance like butter, called by the 
Caffres, Chignite ; it is white and hard, somewhat aromatic, 



S96 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



and is taken to Mozambique as an article of commerce. It 
is not known if this substance is obtained from the stem or 
the kernel of the fruit, and some doubts are entertained as 
to its really being the produce of a Comhretum, but judging 
by the gluey substance obtained from the preceding species, 
it seems not improbable that a kind of butter may be pro- 
duced by an allied species. 

A small family, called Alangiacecs, comprises about 8 or 
10 species ; small trees, natives chiefly of India ; several 
species of Nyssa, called the Tupelo tree, being natives of 
North America. They have all simple entire leaves, and 
agree in some respects with Myrtle, Myrohalan, and other 
allied families. They possess no special properties. 

* * Ovai'y superior. 
f Stamens perigynmis. 

FIG-MARIGOLD AND HOUSE-LEEK ALLIANCE. 

The House-leek Family. 

(Crassulace.e.) 

Herbs, frutlets, or small shrubs, with succulent, fleshy stems 
and leaves, which are alternate, oj^posite, distant or compact, 
rosulate, entire, or divided. Flowers generally in umbel- 
like cymes, one-sided spikes, or panicled racemes, yellow, 
•white, red, or pink. Stamens 5, 10^ or more. Pistils 
generally 5. Fruit consisting of several free follicles, or 
united, forming a capsule. 

Nearly 500 species constitute this family, of which about 
100 are found throughout Europe, on the shores of the 
Mediterranean and in the Canary Islands ; about one-fourth 
of the whole number in South Africa, and the remainder in 
Northern Asia, Japan, and Mexico. They generally grow in 
hot, dry, rocky places, their succulency preserving them 
through the most prolonged drought. 

House-leek (^Sempervivum tectorum). A well-known do- 



THE HOUSE-LEEK FAMILY. 



397 



mestic plant, often seen growing on tlie roofs of cottages 
and outhouses. In Ireland it is regarded as a charm, the 
patch of House-leek on the thatched roof conveying to the 
poor inhabitants a feeling of more security than the plate of 
a fire-insurance company, they considering it as a safeguard 
against fire. In Scotland it is called " fuets." House-leek 
is a common remedy for the cure of warts and corns. 

The genus is represented by a number of hardy as well as 
greenhouse species, of which S. tabulteforme is curious in 
having a rosette of leaves quite flat, like a round inlaid 
table, while in S. calyciforme they are turned up, and 
form a beautiful cup. 

Navelwort {Cotyledon umhilicus). A native of England, 
but rare. It has round, succulent, shield-like leaves ; 
and, like the house-leek, is a common remedy for corns, 
warts, &c. 

The genus Crassula consists of a great number of species, 
natives of the Cape of Good Hope ; many of which are cul- 
tivated for their showy red flowers, especially C. falcata and 
C. coccinea. The latter has, however, of late years come into 
bad repute for its narcotic qualities, symptoms of poisoning 
having in some instances followed the mere smelling of the 
flowers, the effect in some cases continuing for several days, 
even requiring medical aid. As it is a favourite window plant, 
it is advisable that it should not be kept in confined rooms. 

Live-leaf (Bryophyllum calycinum). The leaves of this 
plant are very tenacious of life, producing young plants on 
their margin, even after the leaf has been long separated 
from the plant. It is supposed to be a native of the 
Mauritius. 

The family is represented in Mexico by Echeveria, of 
which there are many fine specimens in the Kew collec- 
tion ; in this country and throughout Europe by several 
species of Sedum^ of which S. acre is well known as orna- 
menting walls and dry gravelly places with its beautiful 
yellow flowers. In alliance with this family is Fouquiera, a 
singular, straggling, hard, shrubby, spiny plant, native of 



S98 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



dry places in Texas and the Western States of America, its 
abundance giving a peculiar feature to the landscape. It 
has small leaves ; and on these falling away, the midrib on 
the under-side becomes a stiff spine. Some botanists con- 
sider it the type of a distinct family. 

The Fig-Marigold Family. 

(Mesembryace^,) 

Erect or prostrate fruticuls or frutlets, rarely shrubs, with 
thick, succulent opposite leaves. Flowers solitary on foot- 
stalks, consisting of numerous petals and stamens of brilliant 
colours, opening during sunshine. Fruit a capsule embedded 
in the calyx, which becomes thickened, generally opening in 
rays, and hygrometric. 

Above 350 species are enumerated in this family, the 
greater portion belonging to the genus Mesemhryanthemum. 
With few exceptions, they are natives of South Africa, 
growing in dry, hot, sandy places. They vary exceedingly 
in the form of their leaves, which are always opposite, being 
flat, cylindrical, thick and fleshy, often three-sided, with 
toothed margins, resembling the jaws of different animals. 
Hence the names Tiger-jaws, M. tigrinum ; Dog-jaws, M. 
caninum ; Cat -jaws, M. felinum, &c. They also contain 
numerous needle-shaped raphides. The capsules, after 
ripening, shut and expand according to the moist or dry 
state of the atmosphere; and on that account have been 
brought to this country as curiosities. 

At one time this genus was in great repute with botanical 
amateurs, the Kew collection, a few years ago, containing 
not less than 250 species. 

Hottentot Fig {Mesemhriianthemum edule). A trailing 
species, taking its name from the calyx becoming large and 
fleshy, in shape like a fig ; it is eaten by the Hottentots. The 
same may be said of M. mquilaterale^ which are eaten by the 
natives of Australia. They are watery and insipid. 



THE FIG-MAKIGOLD FAMILY. 



S99 



Ice-plant {M. crystallinum). This is frequently seen 
as a curious summer annual in gardens, its leaves glis- 
tening on the hottest day as if frozen with ice. Its native 
country is said to be Greece, but it is widely spread 
over the coasts of the Mediterranean : it is also found in the 
Canary Islands and Cape of Good Hope. The ashes of this 
and two other allied species produce an alkali which is 
used in glass-making. The Hottentots and other natives 
of South Africa apply the leaves of Mesemhryanthemum to 
many purposes medicinally, and also for rubbing the skin of 
their new-born children. 

M. fragrans and M. nocturnum are exceptions to the 
general rule, as the flowers open in the evening. The latter 
is a yellow-flowered species, and very fragrant. 

Bitter-root [Lewisia rediviva). A remarkable plant, de- 
viating from the character of the family. It has long fleshy 
tap-roots, about the thickness of young radishes, producing 
a rosette of succulent leaves, from the centre of which rises 
a brilliant pink flower that opens only during sunshine, and, 
with the leaves, is of short duration. It is a native of North 
America ; in Canada it is called Bitter-root, and in Oregon 
Spathulum. The root is white internally, almost entirely 
composed of starch, and might with propriety be called 
Starch-root. It is largely collected and used as food by the 
Indians, and also by Europeans in those regions, even 
although it has a strong bitter taste. It received the specific 
name rediviva on account of the tenacity of life in the roots, 
one having been known to grow and flower after being 
two years a herbarium specimen. With the exception of a 
single species of Mesemhryanthemum^ it is the only other re- 
presentative of the family ia America. 

Formerly this family was termed Ficoidece, and included 
the genera Tetragmia^ Aizoon, Sesuvium, Galenia, and 
several other modern genera, amounting to between 60 and 
70 species, which some botanists have considered as forming 
a distinct family, under the name of Tetragoniacece. They 
possess the same general habit as Mesembryacece, differing 



400 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



chiefly in their flowers being small, without petals, and with 
few stamens. 

They are widely distributed, growing on hot sandy shores 
and dry plains, the most important being 

New Zealand Spinach {Tetragonia expaiua). An annual 
prostrate plant, with dark green leaves. It was dis- 
covered in New Zealand during Captain Cook's first 
voyage, and was much prized as a fresh vegetable by the 
ships' crews. It has since been found wild in many other 
countries. 

It was early introduced into England, and in some gardens 
is cultivated as a substitute for Spinach, being wholesome, 
but of rather a slimy nature. 

The small family, Scleranthce^ is also referred to this 
alliance. It consists of about a dozen species of small-leaved 
frutlets or herbs. Flowers destitute of petals, Eepresented 
in this country by Sclerantlius annuus and S. perennis. 
Known as Knawell. 

TURNERACE^. 

Herbs or partially shrubby frutlets of a weedy natuiT. 
Leaves alternate, simple, with glands on the petiole. Flowers 
solitary, axillary, j^ellow, their peduncles, often united with 
the leaf. Calyx 5-lobed; petals 5, twisted in the bud. 
Stamens 5 ; fruit a 3-valved 1 -celled capsule, only the upper 
half opening. 

About 60 species constitute this family, all being natives 
of the West Indies and tropical America. Turnera ulmifolia 
is a pretty hothouse plant, curious in the footstalk of the 
flower being united with the leaf. 

Samydace^. 

Small trees or shrubs, sometimes spiny, with alternate 
simple leaves, containing pellucid oblong markings. Flowers 
small, axillary, solitary or many together. Fruit a leathery 
3 to 5-valved 1 -celled capsule, pulpy inside, with numerous 
seeds. 



THE PASSION-FLOWER FAMILY. 



401 



About 80 species are enumerated in this family, natives 
cMefly of tropical America. They are only of botanical in- 
terest ; several species are to be seen in the national collec- 
tion at Kew. 

In alliance with Samydacece is a small family called Lacis- 
temacecB. It consists of about 6 species, natives of tropical 
America, and in habit are said to resemble some of the Pepper 
family. 

PASSION FLOWER AND PAP AW ALLIANCE. 
The Passion-flower Family. 

(Passiflorace^.) 

Small trees or tendril climbing ampelids, often attaining a 
great length and height. Leaves alternate, simple or lobed ; 
the footstalks generally bearing glands, and furnished with 
stipules. Flowers axillary or terminal, sometimes in long 
spike-like racemes ; generally large and of showy colours 
(rarely unisexual). Calyx 5 -parted or combined, forming 
a tube. Petals 5, seated on the calyx (sometimes absent), 
generally furnished with a filamentous corona. Stamens 5, 
monadelphous. Pistil 3-parted. Stigmas thick. Ovary pedi- 
cellate. Fruit succulent, pulpy, containing numerous seeds. 

The greater number of the 200 species enumerated in this 
family are natives of Brazil and the West Indies, as well as 
other parts of tropical America, where they climb from tree to 
tree, interlacing in the most complex manner, and beautifying 
the scene by their showy flowers. A few are found in North 
America, one or two in the East Indies, two in Norfolk 
Island and Australia. Smeathmanma, a genus of small 
erect trees, represents the family in the tropical regions of 
Western Africa. The stems' of some of the climbers attain 
the thickness of the arm, and look like ropes ; their vas- 
cular structure is very open, containing a large quantity of 
water. A stem of Passijlora actina^ when cut at Kew, yielded 
nearly a gallon of pure water in about one minute. A great 
many are cultivated in hothouses for the sake of their showy 

D D 



402 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



flowers, and the common Passion-flower {Passiflora ccerulea) 
is hardy in the open air when trained against walls. 

Granadilla (^Passiflora quadrangularis) . Varieties of this 
are found throughout tropical America. The fruit is of an 
oblong form, about 6 inches in diameter, some even weigh- 
ing 3 lbs. When ripe it is of a greenish-yellow colour, and 
contains a soft pulp of a sweet acid flavour, very grateful and 
cooling in a hot climate. It fruits readily in the hothouses 
of this country. 

Water Lemon {Passiflora laurifolia). This produces an 
oval fruit of a lemon colour, about the size of a peach or 
nectarine, full of watery pulp, which is very agreeable. 

Passiflora eduUs is abundant in the West Indies, and 
has been successfully fruited in hothouses. The fruit is of a 
light purple colour and oval, the size of an egg, and is of an 
agreeable and cooling taste. 

Conch Apple or Nut (Passiflora malifonnis). A smaller 
fruit than the Water Lemon, but similar in flavour. 

Wild Water Lemon, or Love in a Mist [Passiflora fostida). 
The fruit of this is about the size of a small cherry, the pulp 
of Avhich is very delicate ; but the smell of the leaves is very 
unpleasant. 

Passiflora tetrandra represents the genus in New Zealand, 
being a slender climber, with narrow lanceolate, smooth leaves 
and small flowers, diff'ering from the rest of the family in 
having 4 petals and 4 stamens. 

Allied to Passifloracece is a small family called Males- 
herbiacece, containing about half a dozen species, natives of 
Chili and Peru. They consist of herbaceous or frutlet 
plants, with showy flowers. Malesherhia linearifolia has 
been cultivated and flowered at Kew. 

The Pap aw Family. 

(Papayace^. ) 

Soft trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, lobed, on long 
footstalks of a soft succulent texture. Flowers axillary, some- 



THE PAPAW FAMILY. 



403 



times on the stems below the leaves, solitary or in short 
racemes, unisexual. Fruit succulent, gourd- like. 

A small family, not exceeding 30 species ; the whole, with 
the exception of the genus Carica^ being natives of temperate 
and tropical countries of the Eastern hemisphere. The 
species of Carica are natives of tropical America and the 
West Indies. 

Papaw Tree {^Carica papaya). A small tree, about 20 feet 
in height, thick and gouty at the base, and of a spongy tex- 
ture, bearing a crown of palmate leaves on long stalks. 
Fruit 8 to 10 inches long, of a yellow colour, and shaped 
like a vegetable marrow ; some round like a melon. It is 
cultivated in most tropical countries, and the juice of the 
fruit and leaves has the singular property of making fresh 
animal flesh quickly tender ; this is effected even by simply 
hanging the flesh in the tree under the leaves. The leaves 
are also saponaceous, and are used as a substitute for soap. 
The milky juice of the young fruit is admitted to be a 
powerful vermifuge. They are also used in curries, and 
made into preserves and pickles. 

Carica spinosa, A branching tree, 20 to 30 feet high, 
native of Guiana and Brazil. The juice is exceedingly 
acrid, causing blisters to the skin, and. is much dreaded. 
The fruit is not eaten ; and the flowers have a carrion-like 
odour. 

In alhance with PapayacecE^ is a small family called 
Pangiacecs^ consisting of about a dozen species of large trees, 
with simple, entire, partially lobed, alternate leaves, uni- 
sexual flowers, and succulent fruit (in some about the size 
of an apple), containing fatty albumen. They are natives of 
Ceylon, India, and Malay Islands, and are chiefly represented 
by species of Hydnocarpus ; they all possess highly poisonous 
qualities. The bruised seeds of H. inehrians are used for 
poisoning fish, and also for the cure of skin diseases through- 
out India. 

Fanguim edule, a native of Java, has hard solid wood ; the 
bark is used for poisoning fish, and the nuts, when macerated 
D D 2 



404 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



in water, are rendered partially wholesome, but are used only 
as a condiment. 

APPLE, KOSE, AND PEA ALLIANCE. 
The Virginian Allspice Family. 

(CALYCANTHACEiE. ) 

Shrubs with square stems, which, besides the true 
central axis, have imperfect lateral ones. Leaves opposite, 
simple, oblong or elliptical, generally rough. Flowers soli- 
tary, axillary, or terminal ; sepals and petals numerous, 
running into one another, their united bases fofming a tube. 
Pistils numerous ; ovaries embedded in the tube of the 
calyx, which becomes the fruit. 

A small family, consisting of probably not more than 
six or eight species, remarkable for their curious structure and 
the aromatic fragrance of their wood and flowers. They are 
represented in North America by the Carolina Allspice (Cali/- 
canthus jloridus and C. occidentalis), and in Japan by Cliimo- 
nanthus fragrans, which are well known in gardens, the latter 
having pale yellow flowers that open in January, when the 
plant is destitute of leaves ; the two former are dark brown, 
and flower in summer. 

The Apple Family. 

(Pomaces.) 

Trees or shrubs, sometimes spiny, with alternate, simple, 
entire, lobed or winged leaves. Flowers solitary or in spikes 
or fascicles. Petals 5. Stamens numerous, free, seated round 
the margin of the tube of the calyx, which becomes thickened. 
Pistils 1 to 5. Ovary 5-celled, united and becoming im- 
mersed in the thickened fleshy calyx, forming a fruit called a 
Pome or Apple. 

This family consists of about 200 species, alnjost entirely 
confined to temperate countries in the Northern hemisphere. 



THE APPLE FAMILY. 



405 



They are valued for their fruits ; none are of a poisonous 
nature. 

Apple (Pyrus mains), Pear (Pi/rus communis). These in 
their crab, or wild state, are natives of temperate Western 
Asia and of Europe, AjDple trees and apples of gold* are 
spoken of in the Bible, but it is supposed to mean the citron, 
as there is no certain evidence of the Apples or Pears of the 
present day being known to the Hebrews, except in the wild 
crab state. They nevertheless appear to have been used 
as food by the inhabitants of the prehistoric lake cities of 
Switzerland, where remains have been found in a carbonized 
state. The Pear was early cultivated by the Eomans, but it 
is only within a few hundred years, or even a later period, 
that the numerous fine sorts of both apples and pears have 
been produced by the skill and art of cultivation. Although 
apples are abundantly produced in this country, they never- 
theless form an important article of import from the conti- 
nent and United States. The purposes to which they are 
applied in culinary uses, confectionery, and wine-making, 
are numerous and well known. Cider is the fermented 
juice of the fruit, and is extensively made in the southern 
and western counties of England. 

Pears are an uncertain crop in this country, the supply of 
the best fruits being imported from France and the Channel 
Islands, where all the fine varieties originated. The fer- 
mented juice forms the well-known drink called Perry. The 
pear lives to a great age, even to several hundred years; the 
wood in old trees is hard and much valued by turners and 
cabinet-makers. 

Mountain Ash or Rowan Tree {Pyrus aucuparia). A 
small tree, native of this country ; it attains the height of 20 
or 30 feet, having erect branches and winged leaves. It is 
highly ornamental in autumn and winter, with its beautiful 
red berries, which are rough to the taste and not much 
eaten, but afford abundance of food to the feathered tribe* 



* Prov. XXV. II; Song of Solomon, ii. 3, 5 ; Joel, i. 12, 



406 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



It is one of the trees of superstition, and in olden times, 
especially in Scotland, was held in high repute as a preven- 
tive against witchcraft. It was commonly planted near cow- 
houses and stables ; pieces of the tree were even placed in- 
side, and there is a common saying, "Eowan tree and red 
thread puts the witches to their speed." 

Service Tree (Fyins soi^hus or Sorb us domestica). A large 
spreading branched tree with winged leaves. It bears an 
oblong or round fruit about the size of a large gooseberry. 
It is a native of various parts of the continent, especially 
France and Italy, where it is much valued for its hard wood, 
which is used for making cogs of wheels, blocks, pulleys, 
&c. ; it takes a high polish. The fruit is acerb and not 
much used, but in Brittany a drink like cider or perry is 
made from it which has a most unpleasant odour. This tree 
grows in Cornwall and is considered to be indigenous. 

Whitebeam Tree {Fynis arid). A tree with oblong ser- 
rated leaves of a snow-white on the under side. It is found 
wild in some places in this country, but is more abundant on 
the continent. The wood is hard and used for the same 
purposes as the preceding. The fruit is acerb. 

Quince {Cydonia vulgaris). The quince is found wild in 
many parts of Europe and Northern Asia. It appears to 
have been early cultivated by the Greeks and Eomans, and 
has been known in this country for more than three hundred 
years. The fruit is of powerful odour and is often used for 
flavouring marmalade and other preserves ; wine is also 
made from it. In the heathen mythology the Quince was 
devoted to the goddess Venus, as being the emblem of love, 
happiness, and faithfulness ; and has been supposed to be the 
golden fruit of the fancied garden of the Hesperides defended 
by the dragon. The Japan Apple, or rather Quince, is the 
beautiful red flowering shrub known in gardens as Cydonia 
japonica. C. sinensis, the Chinese quince, has fruited at 
Kew, but is inferior to the common quince. 

Medlar {Mespilus germanicd). A small spreading tree or 
bush, native of Europe. It is found in hedges and unculti- 



THE APPLE FAMILY. 



407 



vated places in this country. The fruit is about the size of 
a very small apple, having the lobes of the calyx well deve- 
loped, and permanent on its apex. It is unfit for eating when 
fresh gathered, but after several weeks' keeping the pulp be- 
comes like an over-ripe pear ; it has then a pleasant subacid 
flavour. 

Loquat or Japan Medlar {Eriohotrya Japonica). A tree 
of considerable size, with large, elliptical, rough, strong 
veined leaves. In Japan and China it is cultivated for its 
fruit, which is about the size of a small plum, and is pro- 
duced in clusters. It is cultivated in the Australian colcnies 
and in France and other parts of the South of Europe, where 
it fruits abundantly, but is not sufficiently hardy to bear the 
severe winters of this country. 

Hawthorn, or Quick {Cratcsgus oxycantha). This well 
known hedge-tree is a native of most parts of Northern 
Europe and Asia. When grown singly it attains the height 
of 20 or more feet, and lives to a great age ; it is, however, 
principally used for forming hedge fences. There are several 
varieties, both in the colour of the fruit and in having single 
and double flowers ; the common White May is sweet smelling, 
but the variety with scarlet flowers has a very disagreeable 
odour. The Glastonbury Thorn is a variety which flowers 
in early spring, or even at Christmas, if the weather is mild. 
In this country the berries are called Haws. 

Cratcegus Aroiiia. A bushy-growing species, similar in 
habit to the preceding, having a red fleshy Haw fruit. It is 
a native of the South of Europe and Western Asia, and is 
common about Jerusalem, especially on the Mount of Olives, 
where its fruit is collected for preserves. 

Besides the above, many form highly ornamental trees and 
shrubs in the gardens of this country, such as Siberian Crab 
{Pyrus baccata), bearing abundance of fruit about the size of 
cherries, and eatable. F. spectabiUs, native of China, bearing 
a profusion of pink flowers ; while Mespilus canadensis is one 
complete sheet of white, and is known as the Snowy Mespilus. 
There are also many species of Cotoneaster, very ornamental. 



408 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



The Burnet Family. 

( SaNGUI SORBACE^. ) 

Slender shrubs, frutlets or herbs with alternate, simple, 
lobed or winged leaves, furnished with stipules. Flowers 
small, generally in round, cylindrical or spike-like heads, or 
solitary, often unisexual. Petals often absent. Stamens 2, 
4, or many. Ovary (rarely 2) becoming a 1-seeded nut em- 
bedded in the tube of the calyx, Avhich is wing-ed, as in Mar- 
gyricarpus^ or spiny, as in Accena. 

About 120 species constitute this family. They are widely 
dispersed over the temperate regions of both hemispheres, being 
represented in South Africa by the extensive genus Cliffvrtia, 
while species of Accejia are found in Australia, New Zealand, 
South and North America ; Potenum and Sanguisorha are 
European. 

Burnet {Sanguisorha officinalis). A hardy perennial plant, 
with winged leaves, producing branching flower stems 3 feet 
high and bearing oblong heads of reddish flowers. Its ally, 
Poterium Sanguisorha^ being of smaller size, is called the 
lesser Burnet. They are natives of this country, and are 
grown in gardens for their leaves, which are used in soups, 
salads, and for cooling drinks. 

Parsley-piert {AlcJiemil^ arvensis). A small annual, na- 
tive of this country, growing in waste places and fields, often a 
weed in gardens. In some places in England it is called " Fire 
Grass," and is found to be highly beneficial in erysipelas. 

Acana Sanguisorha, a trailing Burnet-leaved shrub, used 
in New Zealand as a substitute for tea, while A. ovina is the 
pest of sheep pastures in Australia and Tasmania, the hooked 
spines of the fruit adhering to sheep render the wool diffi- 
cult to clean. 

The Rose Family. 

(Rosacea.) 

Erect or trailing, generally spiny shrubs, frutlets or her- 
baceous perennials, having entire, lobed or winged leaves, 



THE ROSE FAMILY. 



409 



furnished with stipules. Flowers solitary, in spikes, panicles, 
racemes, or corymbs. Calyx 4- or 5-lobed. Petals 5. 
Stamens of a definite number or numerous. Ovary solitary 
or many, free or united and dry, as in Potentilla, Geum, and 
Spiraa ; or embedded in pulp, as in Fragaria and Ruhus ; 
or contained within the cup of a thickened persistent calyx, 
as in Rosa. Fruit a single-seeded achenia, or feathered or 
many-seeded follicle, which is often tailed and spiny. 

Besides the typical genus Rosa^ this family consists pro- 
bably of about 500 species, natives chiefly of the Northern 
hemisphere, many differing extremely in appearance from 
that of the Eose. The whole are innoxious, their principle 
being of an astringent nature, and, with the exception of the 
fruit-bearing ones, chiefly valued as beautiful or interesting 
plants. 

Eoses. The genus Rosa consists of a great number of 
species, extensively spread over Europe, temperate Asia, 
and North America, about a dozen and half being natives of 
Britain. All in their wild state have single flowers, such as 
Dog Eose {Rosa canina), the fruit of which is known as Hips; 
Scotch Eose [R. spinosissima) ; Sweet-brier or Eglantine 
{R. ruhiginosa). Eoses with double flowers were, how- 
ever, known in early times, such as different varieties of 
Provence Eose (i?. jjrovincialis) ; Damask Eose {R. dama- 
scena) ; Cabbage Eose {R. centifolia) ; Musk Eose (i?. mos~ 
chata) ; all being originally introduced from France about 
three hundred years ago. The Moss Eose {R, muscosa), is 
recorded as being introduced in 1724. During the last fifty 
years, great attention has been paid in France, as also in 
this country, to the cultivation and improvement of Eoses, 
numerous fine hybrids having been raised between European 
and Chinese species. They are not only in favour as orna- 
mental plants, but are largely cultivated at Mitcham in 
Surrey, as well as in many parts of France, for the sake of 
their petals. They are very extensively cultivated in Cash- 
mere, Persia, Damascus, Upper Egypt, Barbary, and Adria- 
nople, in which latter place many thousand acres of land are 



410 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



occupied with them. In this country the seasons are not 
hot enough to ripen the petals for any other purpose than 
making rose water, which is obtained by simple distillation. 
By other processes oil and atta (or as in this country called 
otto) of roses is made," the finest coming from Cashmere, 
but the largest supply to Europe from Adrianople. It is 
seldom to be had in a pure state, being mixed AV'ith oil of 
geranium, and also olive oil, and sold in druggists' shops as 
hair oil. Spirit of Roses is also obtained by distilling the 
petals with a small quantity of spirits of wine, which, when 
mixed with sugar, makes the liquor known in France as 
lliuile de rose. Rose vinegar is simply dried petals infused 
in the best distilled vinegar. Honey of Roses is made by 
beating up fresh flowers with boiling water, and then mixing 
them with honey. Conserve of Roses is prepared by beating 
up the petals with their weight of sugar ; it was once much 
used as a medicine, and still enters into the composition 
of electuaries and other compounds, to which it imparts 
fragrance. 

Strawberry {Fragaria vesca and F. elatior). These are 
the wild StraAvberries of this country, and were the only 
ones known in early times, " Strawberry ripe" being a cry 
in London four hundred years ago. After the introduction 
of the Virginian and Chilian varieties, all the fine kinds 
known have been obtained by careful cultivation and hybri- 
dization, many being of very large size. They are exten- 
sively cultivated, and during the season vast quantities are 
brought to the London market. Before the days of railways, 
they were carried in baskets by women, who came chiefly 
from Shropshire. These Shropshire girls, as they were called, 
being generally uniform in dress, it was a curious sight to see 
twenty or thirty marching in a line with the baskets sitting 
freely on their heads. 

Raspberry (Bubus Idceus). A deciduous shrub, native of 
Britain, most parts of temperate Europe, and Western tem- 
perate Asia. The fruit is of two colours, red and white, the 
latter being called the Dutch. By cultivation they have 



THE ROSE FAMILY. 



411 



been improved in size and flavour. They are well known 
as a dessert fruit, and large quantities are used for jams, 
jellies, and cooling drinks; also for raspberry vinegar, wine, 
and brandy. Like the strawberry, they are quite whole- 
some, but when over-ripe often contain a maggot. 

Bramble or Blackberry (Eubus fruticosus). The Bramble 
is a trailing shrub, with long, rambling, prickly shoots. It 
is a native of Britain, growing in hedges, woods, and waste 
places ; the fruit is black, and is much eaten by children ; it 
is also used for puddings, tarts, and as a preserve. They are 
generally considered astringent, and are used in France and 
England for making, as well as colouring wine. The long 
rods and twigs are used for fixing thatch, and for other 
domestic purposes. 

There are many other species of Eubus of low growth, 
extending to the limits of vegetable life in the northern 
hemisphere. The fruit of several, such as Dew-berry 
(Eubus ccesius), Cloud-berry {E. Cham(S7norus), are used in 
northern countries for making jams and wines. 

Tormentil {Tormentilla erecta and T. officinalis). Perennial 
plants, with pretty yellow flowers, natives of this country. 
They have strong roots, which are powerfully astringent, 
and are used medicinally as well as for tanning. 

Agrimony {Agrimonia Eupatoria). A native of this country, 
and most parts of Europe. It is a powerful astringent, and 
was formerly in high repute with herb doctors in fevers, &c. 

The genus Spirtsa forms a distinct section of Rosacese, 
consisting of a considerable number of species, both shrubs 
and herbs, indigenous throughout the Northern temperate 
hemisphere. They are represented in this country by the 
well-known Meadow-sweet [Spir^sa Ulmaria), and the no less 
beautiful Dropwort (S. Filipendula) ; also the shrubby 
species, S. salicifolia^ which is rare. 

A number of hardy exotic species have been long known 
in gardens, and during the last twenty years many have 
been added from North-west America, Nepal, and Japan, all 
of which are highly ornamental shrubs. 



412 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



One of the most remarkable plants said to belong to the Eose 
family is Bray era anthelmintica, a native of Abyssinia. It is 
a tree with winged leaves, and said to have dioecious flowers. 
It is described by Bruce as being one of the most beautiful 
of Abyssinian trees. The flowers are of great repute as a 
vermifuge, and are most efiicacious in the cure of Tape 
Worm, a prevalent disease in that country. It probably 
belongs to some other family than Eosaceae. 

About 20 species of South American trees and shrubs 
constitute another section, but which probably should be 
considered a distinct family under the name of Qaillajce. 
They differ from Eoses, in having a capsular fruit and 
winged seeds, and in habit seem more nearly related to the 
Apple and Plum family. 

The species most worthy of notice is Quillaja saponaria. 
A tree, native of Chili, attaining the height of from 50 to 60 
feet, having smooth, shining, oval green leaves, about 1^ 
inches in length, and terminal white flowers. Its bark is called 
Quillaja, or soap-bark, and consists of numerous layers, con- 
taining much carbonate of lime, and other mineral matter, 
which renders it so heavy that it sinks in water. It is in com- 
mon use in Chili as soap. Some years ago it was introduced 
into this country and recommended as a substitute for soap, 
especially for Avashing printed goods, silks, and delicate co- 
loured fabrics. An extract of it is in great repute for pro- 
moting the growth of hair, a preparation having been brought 
into use and sold by hairdressers under the name of " Quillaja 
Bark." The chemical action of this extract is very peculiar 
on gold, silver, and glass, a full account of which is given in 
the Journal of the Society of Arts for 1859. 

The Almond and Plum Family. 

(Drupace^.) 

Trees or shrubs, with alternate simple leaves, often having 
glands on their petioles, and furnished with stipules. Flowers 
solitary or in umbels or racemes, generally white or pink 



THE ALMOND AND PLUM FAMILY. 413 



and showy. Calyx 5-toothed. Petals 5. Stamens numerous. 
Pistil 1. Fruit a drupe, with a hard bony seed. 

The species of this family, above 100 in number, are, 
with few exceptions, natives of the North temperate zone. 
Although they furnish many eatable fruits, yet the wood, 
leaves, and kernels are highly poisonous, containing the 
principle of prussic acid. A harmless gum, like gum traga- 
canth, exudes from the stems of many of them. 

Peach and Nectarine (^Amygdalus persica). As its specific 
name implies, this tree is supposed to be a native of Persia, 
and is of high antiquity, having it is believed found its way to 
Italy about the beginning of the Christian era. It is now grown 
in all moderately warm countries. It is recorded as being 
cultivated in England about the middle of the sixteenth cen- 
tury, and, although much grown under glass here as well as 
in Scotland, it nevertheless ripens its fruit in the open air. 
There are many kinds of peach, as also of nectarine, which 
differs from it only in the smoothness of its skin. It is most 
extensively cultivated in the United States, and during the 
season peaches are as plentiful in New York as strawberries 
are in London. 

Almond {Amygdalus communis) . A low growing, spreading 
tree, native of Western temperate Asia. It seldom exceeds 
15 feet in height, but under certain conditions is known to 
attain double that height. It is widely spread over the 
soiith of Europe and North Africa, and appears to have been 
introduced into England about the same time as the peach. It 
forms an ornamental shrub in spring, but the summers are not 
warm enough to bring the fruit to perfection. Although 
there is only one species, the fruit is nevertheless of two 
kinds, one being sweet and the other bitter. The Sweet 
Almond is greatly used for dessert, the part eaten being the 
two seed lobes (the kernel). They form an extensive article 
of commerce, large quantities coming from Spain, chiefly 
from Valencia. The best Jordan almonds come from Malaga, 
and the bitter from Mogador. None come from the country 
of the Jordan. An oil is expressed from both bitter and 



414 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



sweet almonds, from whicli by distillation an essential oil is 
obtained, wliicli is one of the most virulent poisons known. It 
is, however, used in perfumery and for flavouring confec- 
tionery ; but great care is required in its use. A liquid is 
also distilled from them, which contains prussic acid, and is 
highly poisonous, but is used in medicine. 

Apricot {Primus Armeniaca). This is supposed to have 
come from Armenia, in Western Asia, but is now domesti- 
cated with the almond and peach in most temperate countries, 
and appears to have been introduced about the same time. 
On account of its early flowering, it is an uncertain crop in 
this country, but is well known as a dessert fruit, and is also 
made into preserves. In Syria Apricots are dried in large 
quantities, and exported to Egypt under the name of " Mish- 
mush." They are also pressed together, and rolled out into 
thin sheets 2 or 3 feet long, and are called " Moon of the 
Faithful," the appearance of which a traveller likens to a 
blacksmith's apron." Both these preparations form a con- 
siderable article of food, being a very palatable dish when 
stewed. 

Plum (Prunus domestica). The wild plum is supposed to be 
a native of this country, but the fine sorts have mostly origi- 
nated in France. A great many kinds are cultivated for des- 
sert ; those called Damsons and Prunes are extensively used 
for preserves, the latter in a dried state coming to this 
country from Portugal, and from France under the name of 
Brignoles Prunes. 

Sloe, also called Blackthorn {Prunus spinosa). A small 
tree or straggling shrub, common throughout Europe. In 
this country it is generally found in copses and hedge-rows. 
Its wood is hard and takes a fine polish, and is in common 
use for making walking-sticks, handles for tools, &c. The 
leaves when dried make the best substitute for Chinese tea, 
and were at one time extensively used in the adulteration of 
that article. The fruit is harsh and acrid; in Germany 
and Kussia a spirit is distilled from it. 

Bullace {Prwius instititia.) This grows like the preceding, 



THE COCOA PLUM FAMILY. 



415 



but has a larger fruit; there is a white variety sold as 
damsons. 

Gean, or Wild Cherry (Prunus Avium). A tree, native of 
this country, sometimes exceeding 30 feet in height. The 
wood is valued for making furniture. In Germany a spirit 
called Kirschwasser is distilled from it. 

Cerasus vulgaris is a smaller tree, native of this country. 
It is believed that from this and the preceding, all the fine 
sorts of cherries have originated. 

Common Cherry Laurel (Prunus Lauro-cerasus). This well- 
known evergreen shrub is a native of Western temperate 
Asia, and has been known in this coimtry for more than two 
hundred years. Its fruit and leaves are highly poisonous, 
containing much prussic acid, and fatal consequences have 
occurred through the use of its leaves. The leaves also yield 
a volatile oil that forms the basis of cherry-laurel water, and 
is used for destroying flies 5 it is a deadly poison. 

The Cocoa Plum Family. 

(CHRTSOBALANACEiE.) 

Trees or shrubs, having alternate simple leaves with 
stipules, and lateral parallel veins. Flowers in panicles, 
racemes, or umbels. Fruit a drupe. 

Fifty or more species constitute this family. They are 
chiefly natives of tropical Africa and America. 

Cocoa Plum (^Chrysohalanus Icaco). A small tree, native 
of Jamaica and other West India Islands, producing a small 
fruit which is made into a preserve, and forms an article of 
trade. 

Gingerbread Plum {Parinarium macrophyllum). A small 
tree, native of Western tropical Africa, having stiff oblong 
leaves, whitish on the under side, and strongly veined. It 
produces a fruit the size of a large plum. P. excelsum^ the 
Eough-skin, or Grey Plum, as also the Pigeon Plum, Chry- 
sohalanus ellipticus^ and the Yellow Pigeon Plum, C. luteuSj 
are abundant in the markets of Sierra Leone. 



416 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Pottery Tree. The genus Licania and Couepia^ consist 
of a considerable number of handsome tall trees, natives, 
chiefly, of the forests of Brazil and Guiana, several being 
remarkable for having a quantity of silex in their bark. 
The most famous is that called by the Indians, " Caraipe ;" 
by some botanists referred to Moquilea utilis, and by others 
to a species of Licania. The bark is very hard and brittle. 
It is burnt by the Indians and reduced to a powder, which 
they mix with clay and afterwards make into vessels that 
stand fire heat. Specimens of the bark, and vessels made 
from it, are to be seen in the Museum at Kew. 

Hirtella silicea. A considerable-sized tree, native of 
Trinidad. It also contains silex, and is used by the natives 
for making pottery. 

The Bean and Mimosa Family. 

(Leguminos^.) 

Trees, shrubs, or herbs, often twining or tendril climbing 
ampelids. Leaves simple, winged or compound-winged, 
furnished with stipules, true leaves sometimes absent (as in 
many Acacias). Calyx 5 -cleft, unequal. Petals generally 
5, equal and regular, or unequal and papilionaceous. Sta- 
mens few or generally 10 or more, wholly united or 
9 united, and 1 free or all free. Pistil 1, often curved. 
Fruit, a 1- or many-seeded legume, rarely a 1-seeded drupe. 

This is the second largest family of plants in the vegetable 
kingdom. They are found in aU countries favourable to 
plant life, and probably consist of not less than 7000 species, 
varying in size from the creeping Trefoil to the lofty Mora 
and Courharil trees. They all agree in one important cha- 
racter, of their fruit being what is called a legume or pod, as 
in the Pea, Bean, and Scarlet-runner. The pod, however, 
varies very much in form, size, and texture, being cylin- 
drical, convex, angular, flat, straight, crooked or spiral; 
and thin membranous, leathery, woody, and even I3ulpy ; 
from less than an inch to several feet in length. The flowers 



THE BEAN AND MIMOSA FAMILY. 417 



also vary very considerably, being regular or irregular ; a 
great number are papilionaceous, that is, having a butterfly- 
like appearance, as in the common pea. The variations of 
the form and structure of the flower furnish sufficient cha- 
racter for dividing this vast family into three sub-families. 
1st. Papilionaceoe^ Butterfly flowers ; 2nd. Cwsalpiniece, Ir- 
regular (not papilionaceous) flowers; ord. Mimoseoe^ Flowers 
with equal small scale-like petals, and long exserted stamens. 
The first of these contain all the wholesome pulse and fodder 
plants. About 72 species are described as being natives of 
Britain. 

Pea (Pisvm sativum). The Garden Pea is supposed to be 
a native of the South of Europe, at least so far as regards 
the grey or field pea, from which it is believed that all the 
varieties of white, blue, marrowfat, and sugar peas have 
originated. Their uses are well know^n : split peas are the 
cotyledons of the white peas, divested of their skins. In 
Scotland, grey peas are ground into meal, of which bannocks 
are made, forming very nutritious food. 

Bean {Faba vulgaris). Like the Pea this is of ancient 
cultivation, " beans, lentiles, and parched pulse," being part 
of the provisions furnished to King David, as recorded in 
the 2nd Book of Samuel. It is supposed to have been first 
introduced into this country by the Romans. Like the pea, 
there are several varieties, such as field and broad Windsor 
Bean. 

Scarlet Runner Bean (Phaseohis multiflorus). This is 
believed to be a native of Mexico, and was introduced into 
this country more than two hundred years ago. It is well 
known in every garden, being cultivated for its pods, which 
are used when young as a vegetable. Naturally it is a 
tuberous perennial, but it is too tender to stand the winters 
of this climate. The beans, when ripe, are unwholesome, 
and even in some degree poisonous. 

Kidney or French Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris). This is pro- 
bably a native of Western Asia ; it appears to have been 
cultivated in this country about the end of the sixteenth 

E E 



418 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



century. There are several varieties, all of -wliicli are culti- 
vated for their pods. The bean called Haricot forms a 
considerable article of food in France and Italy, and is 
fcometimes used in this country. 

DolicJws, or Vigna sinensis. A plant extensively culti- 
vated in India for its pods, which are sometimes two feet 
in length, containing a number of pea-like seeds, called 
by the Hindoos Chowlee, and forming a considerable article 
of food. In China the green pods are used as a vegetable. 
Other species are cultivated, such as Dolichos unijlorus^ 
called Black Grain, D. vulgaris and D. cultratus. 

Soy {Soja hispida). A small erect trifoliate hairy plant, 
native of India and China. It is cultivated for its seeds, 
which are made into the sauce called Soy ; they also yield 
an oil. It is cultivated in France, but this country is too 
cold for it. 

Pigeon Pea {Cajanus indicus). A native of India, but 
now cultivated in most tropical countries. Naturally it is a 
shrub attaining the height of from 8 to 10 feet, but in culti- 
vation it is treated as an annual. As a pulse plant it forms 
an important article of food in India, as well as in Jamaica, 
where a variety is called " No-eye-pea." It is also a fodder 
plant for cattle. 

Lentil {Ervum Lens). This is the first special food plant 
mentioned in the Bible, as we read in Genesis* that " Jacob 
gave Esau bread and pottage oflentiles;" a previous verse 
shows this to have been red pottage, therefore made of 
the variety of red lentils still in cultivation in Egypt and 
other countries of the East. On the continent they are ex- 
tensively cultivated, and a considerable quantity is imported 
to this country. The meal of lentils is very nutritious ; a 
preparation of it with other ingredients forms the invalid 
food advertised under the names of Ervalenta and Reva- 
lenta, those names being anagrams of the botanical name 
Ervum Lens. 



* Chap. XXV. ver. 34. 



THE BEAN AND MIMOSA FAMILY. 



419 



Tare, or Vetch (Vicia sativd). A plant similar to tlie last, 
but cultivated exclusively as early green fodder for cattle. 

Earth Pea, or Ground Nut {Araclds hypogceci). The native 
country of this plant cannot be ascertained with certainty, 
but it is believed to be America ; it has long been exten- 
sively cultivated in Africa, the West Indies, and all warm 
countries. It is an annual, growing from 1 to 2 feet in 
height, having soft clover-like leaves, and small yellow 
flowers on long footstalks, which are at first erect, but on 
the formation of the pod they bend down, and the pod be- 
comes embedded in and ripens in the earth. It is about two 
inches or more in length, and contains two or three nutty- 
flavoured peas, which constitute an article of negro food, and 
are of commercial value for the oil they yield, which is nearly 
equal to olive oil. 

An allied plant, Voandzeia subterranea, is also extensively 
cultivated as an article of food in Western and South Africa, 
and has become naturalized on the continent of America. 

Clover (^Trifolium pratense). The common red clover has, 
like many other cultivated plants, assumed several dilFerent 
forms, some almost sufficiently distinct to appear like sepa- 
rate species, known by the names of Zigzag Clover ( T. me- 
dium)^ Carnation Clover (T. incarnatum)^ and Alsike Clover 
{T. hyhiidum). 

Dutch or White Clover {Trifolium repens). This is well 
known as a fast-spreading plant, being the pioneer to cultiva- 
tion, superseding all other plants, as is now the case in New 
Zealand. Its flowers are of great importance for the honey- 
making bees. It is said to be the shamrock of Ireland, but 
it is very questionable if it had become naturalized at the 
time of St. Patrick's landing in that country. 
I- French Honeysuckle (Hedysarum coronai^iwii). A beau- 
tiful plant, native of Spain and Italy, and cultivated in this 
country as food for cattle ; fields of it, as also of Trifolium 
incarnatum, and of Saintfoin (^Onohrychis sativd)^ have a 
splendid appearance when in flower. 

Lucerne or Medick {Afedicago sativd), A well known 
E E 2 



420 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



fodder plant. Hop Medick {M. lupulina), is also cultivated 
for fodder ; its flowers have some resemblance to those of 
Hop ; hence its name. 

Bokhara Clover {Melilotus alba). Some years ago this 
came into repute as a fodder plant, but is now not much 
used. 

Melilot {Melilotus officinalis). A clover-like annual or 
biennial, widely cultivated throughout Europe and Western 
Asia, as food for cattle. In Switzerland the leaves are made 
into powder, w^hich is used for flavouring Chapzieger Cheese, 

Fenugreek {Tngonella Fcenum-GTcECum). An annual, 
growing like Lucerne. It is a native of the South of Europe 
and of the regions around the Mediterranean. In Greece 
the seeds are eaten, either boiled or raw^, mixed with honey ; 
they are of strong odour, and w^ere used in medicine by the 
ancients; but now their only use is for giving ialse im- 
portance to horse medicine, and flavour to damaged hay. 

Lupin (Lvpinus alhus). An annual, which, according to 
history, has been cultivated in Egypt from the niost remote 
period. It is extensively grown in the South of Europe for 
ploughing in as manure (which is also the case in Germany 
with the Yellow Lupin). For some years past it has been 
cultivated in many parts of Britain for the same purpose. 
The seeds of this, also of the well known blue and yellow 
Lupins, are used as food when boiled ; in a raw state they are 
poisonous, the two latter in a higher degree than the first. 

liiquoTice {Gil/ ci/rrhiza glabra). A strong- growing peren- 
nial, with winged clover-like leaves. It attains the height of 
2 or 3 feet, and is a native of the South of Europe, where it 
is extensively cultivated, as also in some parts of this country, 
especially near Pontefract in Yorkshire, and Mitcham and 
Kew in Surrey. It has a long tap-root, attaining in some 
soils the depth of 5 or 6 feet, which by boiling yields a 
molass-like sweet syrup extensively used for giving an appa- 
rent body to inferior porter. The w^ell-known Spanish 
liquorice is the juice hardened and made into rolls, which 
is imported from Spain. 



THE BEAN AND MIMOSA FAMILY. 



421 



Senna (Cassia acutifolia, C. elongata, and others). Slender 
annuals, about 2 feet liigh, having winged leaves, which 
when dry constitute the Senna of the shops. They are cul- 
tivated in the regions of the Mediterranean, Egypt, Arabia, 
and India. 

Cassia fistula. A small tree, producing abundance of 
showy yellow flowers. It is a native of the East Indies, and 
has been introduced into the West Indies, and other coun- 
tries. Its pod is cylindrical, about twice the thickness of the 
finger, 1 to 2 feet in length, and known by the name of 
Pudding Pipe. The interior is divided into numerous parti- 
tions, each containing a seed embedded in black pulp, which 
forms the laxative medicine called Lenitive Electuary. 

Indigo {Indigofera tinctoria). A slender branching shrub, 
with winged leaves, native of and extensively cultivated in 
India, which, with /. Anil, a species of the West Indies, pro- 
duces the Blue Indigo dye. It is obtained by soaking the 
stems in water, and after undergoing several " processes the 
deposit when dry is made into cakes. 

Crotalaria juncea. This, as well as C. retusa, is a slender- 
stemmed annual, with simple leaves. Both are extensively 
cultivated in India for their fibre, which is much used for 
making ropes and bags. 

Another fibre is obtained from Seshania aculeata, a much- 
branched annual, native of India, where in some parts it is 
cultivated. The fibre is very strong and durable under 
water. It is also found in the West Indies and Tropical 
America. 

Shola or Solah (vEchynomene aspera). A native of India, 
.Malacca, and other parts. It has spongy white stems, 2 to 
3 inches in diameter, floating in water, and winged leaves. 
The stems, on account of their lightness, are united together 
by pressure, and used for many purposes — such as for 
making pith hats, floating jackets, and other ornamental arti- 
cles. The curiosity chips from Japan are made from the pith. 

Locust or Carob Tree (Geratonia Siliqua). A small tree, 
with shining, winged leaves, attaining the height of from 20 



422 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



to SO feet. It is a native of most countries bordering on the 
Mediterranean. The flowers are yellow, and have a very 
foetid odour; the pods contain much mucilage of a sweet 
nature, of which a syrup is made, and are by some supposed 
to be the " Locusts" that John the Baptist lived upon in the 
wilderness, the tree being called St. John's Bread. They 
are also supposed to be the "husks" mentioned in the 
Parable of the Prodigal Son. The pods have for some years 
past been imported into this country for feeding cattle, and 
form part of the patent horse food ; they are also sold in shops 
as SAveets for children. 

Algaroba. This is the name of the pods of several species 
of Frosojns, which are found to extend from Chili northward 
to Western Mexico. They are small trees, seldom exceeding 
20 or 30 feet in height, very prickly, and generally with 
contorted branches ; often having hooked spines. The wood 
is hard and extremely durable. P. dulcis and P. horrida are 
natives of Peru, where they cover extensive plains. The 
pods are used as food, but more especially for feeding cattle, 
being similar to the Locust tree pods of Europe. 

Tamarind {^Tamarindus indica). A moderate-sized tree, 
native of India, Arabia, and Egypt, and has become indi- 
genous in the West Indies, and other tropical countries. It 
has winged deciduous leaves, and flat pods, about 4 or 6 
inches in length, which contain a sweet pulp well known as 
preserved tamarind. 

Manna {Alhagi maurorum). A dwarf, thorny, scrubby 
plant, native of the deserts of Western Asia. It, with other 
allied species, produces a kind of manna, which exudes and 
hardens like drops on the leaves, and is collected by shaking 
the bushes. 

Gum Tragacanth {Astragalus tragacantha). A native of 
the same desert countries as the preceding, and abundant in 
Mount Lebanon. It is a harsh, spiny, low shrub. A gum 
exudes from the stem, which is used in the arts as a sub- 
stitute for glue, and for stifl'ening crape. The principal 
supply comes from the Levant. 



THE BEAN AND MIMOSA FAMILY. 423 



Gum Arabic (Acacia vera, A. Arahica). Natives of 
northern and eastern parts of Africa, Arabia, and the East 
Indies, They are generally small spiny trees or shrubs, grow- 
ing in deserts. The gum, of which there are different quali- 
ties, exudes from the stem and branches. Gum Senegal is 
produced by an allied species. 

Acacia giraffe, A. sequale, or A. nilotica, are small thorny 
trees, similar in habit to the preceding, natives of the deserts 
of South-Eastern Africa and Arabia. It is supposed that the 
latter was the " Shittim wood " of which the Ark of the 
Covenant and the Tabernacle of the Israelites were made. 

Cutch {Acacia Catechu). A tree, native of India, described 
as varying considerably in size, being found, it is said, in the 
Pegu forests from 50 to 60 feet high, and 6 to 8 feet in girth. 
The wood is cut into pieces and boiled in water, which be- 
comes impregnated with the resin ; the water is then strained 
and evaporated, and the resin dried and made into cakes, in 
which state it is imported, being used principally for tan- 
ning and dyeing. It is also a powerful astringent medicine. 

Wattles. A name given by the first settlers of Australia 
to many species of Acacia, with which that country, as well 
as Tasmania, abounds. They vary in size from scrub, heath, 
or furze-like, to lofty trees with broad phyllodese,* or finely 
divided compound leaves, all bearing yellow flowers, and pre- 
senting a gay appearance, from which circumstance they are 
favourites in greenhouses. Many of them yield gum in 
great abundance, which is an extensive article of import to 
this country ; but it is likely to cease, on account of the trees 
being cut down for bark, which contains tannin. To such 
an extent is the trade in bark carried, that the trees have 
nearly disappeared in the South Australian colonies ; the 
species being chiefly A. Jlonhunda, A. decurrens, and 
A. dealbata. Their timber is also highly valued, especially 
that of A. melanoxylon, which, as its name implies, is of a 
dark colour, and takes a fine polish, like other black woods 
of Victoria. 

* See p. 32. 



424. 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Acacia homalophylla is known by the name of Myal. In 
the East and West Indies, as well as in tropical America, 
the genns is represented by large timber trees, and in South 
Africa by several thorny species, as A. Caffra,A. giraffe, and 
others, one being peculiar in having fine red wood. 

Acacia Fai-nesiana. A beautiful species, with compound 
winged leaves and fragrant yellow flowers. It is a native 
of Syria, and abounds in the neighbourhood of the Dead 
Sea, where it is covered with Loranthus AcacicB, which, 
when in blossom, gives the whole tree the appearance of 
being in a flame of fire. It has become naturalized in Italy 
and other parts of Europe, where it is much esteemed on 
account of its highly odoriferous flowers, which by process of 
manufacture, impart their odour to fat, constituting what is 
called Cassie Pomade. The Oil of Cassie, used in perfumery) 
is obtained by macerating the flowers in olive oil. 

The only species of this genus hardy in this country, is 
A. Julihrissin, a native of the Levant, naturalized in the 
South of Europe, and introduced into this country more than 
one hundred years ago. 

The numerous species of Acacia originally belonged to 
the genus Mimosa of Linnaus. The pods of the latter are 
separated into valves or joints, which fall away, while in 
Acacia the pod is plain. Mimosa is, however, still a large 
genus, consisting of 200 species of trees and shrubs, with 
compound leaves, many of which are sensitive and collapse 
when touched or shaken, the Humble Plant [Mimosa pudica) 
and the Sensitive Plant (M. sensitiva) being examples. 

Their motion, however, differs from that of the Moving 
Plant {Desmodium gi/rans), a native of India. This is a slender 
growing plant in hothouses, attaining the height of 2 feet, 
having trifoliate leaves, the two side leaflets being small, 
while the centre one is about 2 inches in length, of elliptical 
form, and thin texture. The name Moving Plant is given 
to it on account of the two side leaflets being in constant 
motion, rising and falling alternately, but not regularly as 
to time. In a large plant, many may be seen in motion at 



THE BEAN AND MIMOSA FAMILY. 



425 



one time ; their rise and fall may be compared to the railway 
telegraph signals. 

Balsam of Peru (JS'Iyrospermum {Myroxyloii) peruiferurni) 
Balsam of Tolu {M. toluiferum and other species). Small 
trees with smooth winged leaves like the Ash, natives of 
Peru and other parts of tropical America, particularly 
Guatemala, and the west coast of Central America. They 
yield a highly valued odoriferous Balsam, which is used in 
medicine and perfumery. M. frutescens is a tree similar 
to the preceding, but with pubescent leaves, native of 
Trinidad. It also yields a gum, with which the former is 
frequently adulterated. 

Copaiva Balsam [Copaifera officinalis). A large hard- 
wooded tree, native of Brazil, Guiana, and the West India 
Islands. The Balsam is contained in the wood of the tree, 
and is obtained by making deep incisions, when it flows 
out. The trees are sometimes so full of it, that they burst 
spontaneously. Large quantities come from the upper 
region of the Amazon, It is floated down in hollow trees 
like canoes, some containing as much as 2500 gallons. 
Other species of the genus are stated to produce Balsams. 

Gum Kino {Pterocarpus marsupium). A large hard-wooded 
timber tree, native of India, which with P. erinaceus of 
Western Africa, yields a gum. It is obtained by making 
incisions in the bark, and is imported for tanning and dye- 
ing. A gum Kino is also yielded by P. Dalhergioides^ a 
large tree, native of Burmah and the Andaman Islands, 
where it groAvs to the diameter of 4 feet. Its wood is hard 
and similar to mahogany. 

Red Sandal Wood [Pterocarpus santalinus). A tree, native ^^^♦^JU^ 
of India, particularly on the Coromandel coast. Its wood 
is of a red colour, and is imported to this country as a dye, 
being similar to Dragon's Blood. The wood is heavy and 
close grained. 

Brazil or Braziletto wood {Ccesalpinia echinata). A 
rugged-growing tree about 20 or 30 feet high, with prickly 
branches and winged leaves. It is a native of Brazil, and is 



426 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



imported as Brazil wood ; but there is some uncertainty 
whether it is not some other alHed species that produces the 
wood. It is used by dyers, and for fine cabinet work. 

Divi-divi (Ccesalpiraa coriaria). A tree from 20 to 30 feet 
high, native of the West Indies and many parts of tropical 
America. It has tough, leathery seed-pods, which are exten- 
sively used for tanning, and are imported to this country for 
that purpose. 

Sappan Wood {Ccesalpinia Sappan). A tree, native of 
India, having ^lard wood. Imported for dyeing purposes. 

LogAvood {Hcematoxylon Campechianwn). A small tree, 
from 20 to 30 feet high, with winged leaves consisting of 
from 3 to. 4 small leaflets. It is a native of Campeachy and 
other parts of Central America, and has become naturalized 
in Jamaica and other West India islands. It was early in- 
troduced for dyeing purposes, and forms a considerable 
article of import. 

Jamaica Ebony {Brya Ehenus). A slender tree with 
winged leaves, attaining the height of 30 feet or more. It 
is a native of Jamaica, and has hard wood of a greenish- 
brown colour which takes a good polish ; it is sometimes 
called Grreen Ebony, and is also known by the name of Cocus 
Wood. 

Camwood or Barwood {Baphia nitida), A tree, native of 
Western Africa, attaining the height of 40 feet or more. It 
is imported into this country from Sierra Leone, and is much 
used by calico dyers for its red colour. 

Black Wood oi; Eose Wood of India {Dalhergia latifolia). 
A large tree, native of Western India. It is highly valued 
for its timber, the finest and most expensive fm-niture being 
made of it. D. nigra, a native of Brazil, produces the best 
Eosewood. Several other species of Dalbei^gia, also various 
trees, natives of different parts of tropical America, are called 
Eosewood. 

Eed Sandal Wood {Adenanthera pavonind). A large 
handsome tree, with compound winged leaves, consisting of 
numerous small leaflets. It is a native of India, and produces 



THE BEAN AND MIMOSA FAMILY. 427 



valuable timber, also a red dye, and the red seeds are made 
into necklaces and bracelets. (This must not be mistaken 
for the true Sandalwood tree, which see.) 

Moreton Bay Chestnut (Castanospermum australe). A 
large timber tree, native of Moreton Bay (now Queensland). 
It attains the height of from 70 to 100 feet, having glossy 
winged leaves a foot or more in length, and racemes of 
showy red and yellow flowers. The pod is of cylindrical 
form, 6 to 7 inches in length, containing seeds something 
like chestnuts, which, though tempting to look at, are un- 
palatable to Europeans. 

Mora Tree (Mora excelsa). A large tiee, attaining the 
height of from 100 to 150 feet, having glossy winged leaves 
like the preceding, but larger, the leaflets being elliptical, 3 
to 4 inches in length. It is a native of Guiana, and of late 
years extensive forests of it have been found in Trinidad. 
Its timber is now extensively imported to this country for 
ship-building, and is considered superior to oak. The pods 
are about 1 foot in length, and 3 inches in breadth, contain- 
ing several convex seeds 3| inches long, and from 1 to 2 
inches thick ; but these are exceeded by the seeds of a species 
from Central America, which are about 6 inches long and 
2 1 inches thick, and may be considered the largest seed of 
any exogenous plant. 

Locust Tree of the West Indies, or Courbaril {Hymencea 
Courharil). A tree, native of tropical America and the West 
Indies. In Brazil and other parts it grows to an immense 
size, the diameter of the true stem being from 6 to 9 feet, 
surrounded by buttresses measuring round the base above 
80 feet in circumference ; some trees are supposed to be 
more than a thousand years old.. Its timber is hard, and is 
sometimes imported for ship-building. The pods are hard 
and woody, 3 to 4 inches in length, and 2 inches in breadth, 
containing several bean-like seeds embedded in white spongy 
matter, and were likened by the early Spaniards to the pods 
of the Locust Tree of Europe. It yields a gum copal that 
collects in lumps under and amongst the roots of the tree, 



428 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



and which accounts for the great quantity of copal found in 
Angola and other parts of Western Africa, where it is dug 
out of the sandy or marly soil in lumps. As there is but 
scanty tree vegetation, none of Avhich at the present time is 
found to produce gum, it is called fossil copal, and is no 
doubt the produce of some unknown tree that grew there at 
some remote period. 

Gum Copal of Zanzibar is obtained from Trachijlohium 
Hornemannianum. A tree allied to the preceding. The 
gum exudes from the branches, and is, with the former, 
imported to this country, as Gum Anime, and used for 
varnishing. It is also found abundantly in a fossil state 
in the same country where no trees now exist. The beau- 
tiful substance called amber, generally thrown up by the sea, 
is no doubt the produce of some copal trees, which at some 
remote period became submerged. 

Zamang (Pithecolobium Saman). A large tree, native of 
Venezuela, first brought to notice by Humboldt, who says: 
" In the evening we saw something in the distance which we 
took for a mountain, but on near approach found it to be a 
tree, the famous Zamang of the natives." Its head was 
hemispherical, having a circumference of 526 feet, the total 
height being 60 feet, and the diameter near the ground 9 feet. 
The age of the tree is calculated by Humboldt to be the 
same as that of the Dragon tree of Oratava, but this is 
very questionable, for according to the rate of growth of 
young trees or seeds taken from the Venezuelan tree and 
planted in the Botanic Garden, Trinidad, in 1820, it appears 
to be a fast growing tree, for in little more than forty years 
they attained the girth of 15 feet The leaves of the Zamang 
are compound-winged, the leaflets being about the size of Ash 
leaflets. Its thick flattish pods about 8 inches in length and 
1 in width, contain a sweetish pulp and are in common use 
for feeding cattle. 

Sab cu Timber {Lysiloma Sahicu). A large tree, native 
of Cuba, yielding planks from 4 to 5 feet in width ; it is 
highly valued for ship-building, and has been extensively im- 



THE BEAN AND MIMOSA FAMILY. 



429 



ported for that purpose. Its hardness and durability were 
tested by forming of it the stairs of the Great Exhibition in 
1851, at the close of which they were found quite perfect, 

Tonquin Bean {Dipterix odorata). A tree, native of 
Guiana. It attains the height of 60 to 80 feet, having sim- 
ple winged leaves, and fruit of an oval form like the almond, 
containing one seed, about an inch in length. It is the Ton- 
quin Bean used for scenting snuff, and comes to this country 
principally from Cayenne. 

Laburnum {Cytisus Laburnum). Scotch Laburnum (C. 
alpinum). These well known ornamental trees are natives of 
Switzerhind and elevated regions of France and South Ger- 
many. In this country they attain the height of 20 feet or 
more. The wood is hard and valued for turnery work; it takes 
a good polish, like ebony. The seeds are poisonous. A 
variety or hybrid, C. Adami, is remarkable on account of its 
producing common yellow and dusky red flowers on the same 
tree, or even on the same branch ; as also tufts of the little 
C. purpureus. To account for this morphism forms a puzzle 
to physiologists. 

Sophora Japonica. This tree was introduced from China 
more than one hundred years ago, and is perfectly hardy, 
forming a handsome bushy deciduous tree from 30 to 40 feet 
high, having dark green winged leaves, and a great profusion 
of racemes of white flowers, which are used in China as a 
yellow dye for silk. Several fine specimens are still to be 
seen at Kew, which were planted at the foundation of the 
Botanic Garden, in 1760. 

Locust Tree of North America, or False Acacia (Rohinia 
Pseud- Acacia). A tree, native of North America, and has 
been grown in this country for more than two hundred years. 
It attains the height of 40 or 50 feet, averaging 2| feet in 
diameter. The wood was at one time considered valuable 
for ship-building, but if now used, it is only for trenaiL. 
The roots smell and taste like liquorice, but are poisonous. 

Gleditschia triacanthos is also a Locust Tree of North 
America similar to the last. Old trees in this country have 



430 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



attained the height of 60 feet. It is remarkable for the 
trunk being armed vdth strong forked spines, 3 or 4 inches 
in length, and of a very formidable appearance. 

Gymnocladus canadensis. Another North American tree, 
attaining the height of 40 feet or more, having thick, stiff, 
spreading branches, bearing large compound winged deciduous 
leaves. A specimen at Kew in one hundred years attained 
the height of about 40 feet. 

Judas Tree {Cercis siliquastrum). A rude-growing tree, 
fi^om 20 to 30 feet high, having a spreading head of stiff 
branches, simple lilac Syringa-like leaves, and pink flowers, 
which are produced on the old wood and branches of the 
tree, before the leaves appear, giving it a remarkable ap- 
pearance in the distance. It is found wild throughout South- 
ern Europe, Western Asia, and even in Japan. The wood is 
hard, blotchy, and waved, and takes a fine polish. The tree 
is abundant in Palestine, and has been long introduced into this 
country. A sujjjDOsed second species is found in Canada. 

Broom (Spartium scoparius). A shrub, native of Britain, 
and throughout Europe. It is well known for its beautiful 
yellow flowers, and for its numerous uses in domestic eco- 
nomy. In Spain and France it attains the size of a tree, and 
its wood, which is hard, is highly valued for veneering and 
cabinet work. The fibre of the bark is very strong, and 
capable of being used for many purposes. 

Spartium nionospermum. A plant abundant throughout the 
desert countries of Syria and Palestine. It is extensively 
used for making charcoal, and appears to be " the coals of 
Juniper," referred to in the Psalms,* 

Erytlirina Corallodendron. Common throughout the West 
Indies and tropical America, and is, with other species, 
called Coral Tree from its red seeds, which are made into 
necklaces, like coral. They are soft wooded, often gouty- 
stemmed trees, with prickly branches, laurel-like trifoliate 
leaves, and with long spikes of splendid red flowers. 



* Psalm cxx. ver. 4. 



THE BEAN AND MIMOSA FAMILY. 431 



Ormosia dasycarpa. A tree, native of Brazil and other 
parts of tropical America, also of the West Indies. It has hard 
red polished seeds, with a black eye, which are used for 
making necklaces, &c. 

Crab's eyes (Abrus precatorius). A slender, twining 
winged-leaved plant, originally a native of the East, but long 
naturalized in the West Indies and other parts. It has a 
small pea-like seed similar to, and used for, the same purpose 
as the preceding. 

Guilandina Bonduc and G. Bonducella. Climbing, prickly 
shrubs, found near the coast in most countries within the 
Tropics. They have a thin-shelled, prickly pod, containing 
seeds about the size of nuts, of a beautiful yellow and grey 
colour, so hard that they resist the force of an ordinary ham- 
mer, and appear more like pebble stones than seeds. They 
are also used for bracelets, necklaces, &c. 

Ordeal or Calabar Bean {Physostigm.a venenatuin). A 
strong climbing plant, with leaves and flowers similar to the 
Scarlet Eunner or DoUchos, but having a permanent woody 
stem 2 inches in diameter, and of great height. The pods are 
about 6 or 7 inches in length, and contain several seeds of a 
kidney shape, about an inch in length, of a dark chocolate 
brown colour, approaching black ; they are highly poisonous. 
It is a native of Old Calabar, and is there used as a test for 
witchcraft. It is found to act powerfully in diseases of the 
eye. It was much imported, but in 1864 the supply was 
greater than the demand, in consequence of which, at Liver- 
pool, a quantity was thrown away with the sweepings of the 
ship. The seeds were found and eaten by children, and 
proved fatal to several. 

Cow-itch (Mucuna pruriens). This and other allied 
species, are natives of Tropical countries. It is a climbing 
plant, like the Scarlet Runner, and takes the name Cow-itch 
from its broad pod being densely coverered with small hairs, 
which, on being touched, or even shaken, spread over the 
body, and produce intolerable itching, well known to many 
travellers, and to those who incautiously handle the pods, or 



432 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



even open paper in which they are contained. These hairs 
are scraped off, mixed with syrup or honey, and used as a 
vermifuge. 

Scimitar Pods {Entada scandens). A strong climbing 
shrub, attaining a great height, native of tropical India 
and America. It is remarkable for its large hard-wooded 
flat pods, which are from 4 to 6 or even 8 feet in length, 
and being curved, resemble a sword or scimitar. They 
contain round, hard, convex seeds, about 2 inches in diameter, 
which are formed into snuff-boxes and toys. The seeds are 
sometimes sold in London under the name of Indian filberts, 
but are not eatable ; they are often carried by the gulph 
stream to the Western shores of Scotland. 

This family is strongly represented in Australia, not only 
by the Tree Acacia, but also by numerous small shrubs which 
form the scrub vegetation of the country. Several of them 
are highly poisonous, especially Gastrolohium trilohum, G. ob- 
tusum, and G. spinosum, natives of Western Australia, where, 
some years ago, before the cause was discovered, they proved 
fatal to sheep and cattle, and are known as the poison plants. 
Their pretty blue and yellow flowers led them to become 
objects of interest in the greenhouses of this country, and for 
the first half of the present century they formed an important 
part of the fine Australian collection at Kew. 

Wistaria sinensis. A strong growing woody shrub, trailing 
and twining to a great length or height, forming a stem 1 foot 
in diameter. It is a native of China and Japan, and was in- 
troduced in 1818. On account of its rapid growth and 
beautiful bunches of light-blue flowers, which are produced 
in great profusion, it has become a great favourite for cover- 
ing walls, trellis work, and dwelling-houses. W. frutescens 
is a similar species, native of North America, but is not so 
handsome. 



483 



SPINDLE TREE AND BUCKTHORN ALLIANCE. 

The Spindle Tree Family. 

(Celastrace^.) 

Small trees, shrubs or climbing ampelids, with alternate 
simple leaves. Flowers generally small, axillary in umbel- 
like clusters. Sepals, petals, and stamens 4 or 5 each, seated 
round the margin of a fleshy disk. (The petals sometimes 
absent.) Pistils 1 or 4. Fruit a 3- or 5-valved, dry or 
drupe-like capsule. Seeds as in Euonymus^ surrounded by 
a red fleshy arillus. 

This is a widely distributed family, consisting of about 
800 species, chiefly natives of temperate regions ; special 
virtues are ascribed to them in their different localities. 
They are of a somewhat poisonous nature. A few are useful 
as timber trees. 

Spindle Tree {Euonymus europceus). A small tree or spread- 
ing shrub, native of this country, generally found growing in 
hedges or in margins of woods. The wood is compact, 
capable of being split as fine as a hair, and is used by watch- 
makers, being known to them by the name of Dog-wood. It 
is also used for shoe-pegs, skewers, and the like. 

Euonymus atropurpureus. A shrub or small tree, native 
of North America, where it is known by the name of Burning 
Bush, its numerous crimson capsules and red arils giving 
it a bright appearance when seen at a distance. It forms an 
ornamental shrub in this country. 

Celastrus scandens. A trailing and climbing shrub, native 
of North America. Its fruit is orange-coloured, as is also 
the aril, and has the appearance of wax, hence its name. 
Waxwork Shrub. Many species of this genus are natives 
of the Cape of Good Hope, and are generally hard-wooded 
scrubby shrubs, Celastrus pyracanthus having hard spines 2 
to 3 inches in length. C. cymosus has showy white flowers, 
but of a very foetid odour. 

F F 



484 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Catha edulis. This is probably the most important plant 
of the family. It is a shrub 10 feet or more in height, with 
rusty coloured leaves, not unlike those of the strawberry 
tree. It is a native of Arabia, where it is extensively culti- 
vated for its leaves, which have properties similar to those of 
tea and coffee, and have been used by, the Arabs as such from 
time immemorial, under the name of Kat. It forms a consi- 
derable article of commerce, being brought from the interior 
to Aden in bundles 12 or 15 inches long, consisting of about 
40 twigs tied together. It is either used in a decoction or 
chewed, its effects being very stimulating, producing great 
hilarity of spirits. The quantity brought to Aden alone is 
nearly three hundred camel loads per year, and it there re- 
presents the Paraguay tea of South America. 

One of the largest trees of the family is ElcBodendron in- 
tegrifolia^ a native of the forests of Pegu. It has white- 
coloured wood, well adapted for cabinet-work, as is also 
that of E. australe, a native of New South Wales. 

A small family has been separated from the preceding, 
under the name of Staj^ht/Ieacecs, Bladder-nut family. It 
consists of about 12 species. SmaU trees or shrubs, with 
opposite winged leaves, and flowers in terminal racemes. 
They are all widely dispersed over both hemispheres, Sta- 
phylea pinnata being a native of England, and S. trifoliata 
of North America. The seeds of Bladder-nut are oily and 
purgative. 

(Brexiace^.) 

A small family consisting of about 6 species of smaU, 
slender, almost unbranched trees, having firm, glossy, long 
linear, alternate leaves, with entire or spiny margins. 
Flowers axillary, in umbel clusters, of a greenish colour, 
and firm in texture. Calyx, petals, and stamens 5 seated 
on a disk. Pistil simple. Fruit a drupe. 

The best known species are Brexia Madagascarensis, which 
varies in its leaves being smooth or spiny, the latter being 
well known as B. spinosa. Ixerha hrexioides is a small tree, 



THE BUCKTHORN FAMILY. 



435 



native of New Zealand, having spiny leaves similar to the 
preceding. Their uses are unknown. 

(Chailletiace^.) 

This family consists of 20 or more species. Trees with 
alternate, simple, entire leaves, often white underneath, fur- 
nished with stipules. Flowers small, in compact clusters. 
Stamens 5. Pistil 1. Fruit a dry 1- 2- or 3-celled drupe. 
They are principally natives of the tropical regions of both 
hemispheres. The seeds of Chailletia toxicaria are said to 
be poisonous. 

The Buckthorn Family. 

(Rhamnace^.) 

Small trees or shrubs ; some heath-like, often spiny, or 
twining ampelids. Leaves alternate, simple, furnished with 
stipules. Flowers axillary, small, inconspicuous, generally 
greenish yellow. Petals 4 or 5, plain or hooded. Stamens 
5, and with the petals inserted on a fleshy disk, in which the 
ovary is partially immersed. Pistil 1. Fruit a berry (drupe- 
like) or a dry capsule. 

This is a widely distributed family, consisting of more 
than 250 species ; represented in North America by the 
beautiful genus Ceanothus^ in Europe and Asia by Rliamnus 
and Zizyphus^ in South Africa by Phylica and others, and 
in Australia by Pomaderris, A yellow principle pervades the 
family. 

Buckthorn {Bhamnus catharticus). A rude-growing strag- 
gling spiny shrub, about 10 or 12 feet high, native of this 
country. Its fruit is about the size of a currant, of a 
bluish black colour, and is nauseous and purgative. The 
juice of the unripe berries is yellow, and is used for staining 
maps. The juice of the ripe berries is the sap green of 
painters. It is also called bladder-green." 

Rhamnus infectoritis. A native of the South of Europe 
and Western Asia. The berries are of considerable impor- 
tance as a dye used by calico printers, and known as Yellow 
F F 2 



436 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



or Persian Berries. Great quantities are imported from 
ports of the Black Sea, particularly from Trebizond. 

A Chinese dye for dyeing silk has of late years come 
into notice ; it is obtained from the bark of two species 
of Rhamnus, R. cliloroplionis and B. utilis. It comes to 
Europe in cakes under the name of Chinese green indigo. 
Living plants of both species have been received, and appear 
to be suf&ciently hardy to live in the open air ; they might 
doubtless be naturalized in the south of England and Ireland. 

Rhamims frangula. A stiff branching shrub 6 or 8 feet 
high, or sometimes with a single stem, assuming the cha- 
racter of a small tree, native of this country, growing in 
woods and uncultivated grounds. Its wood is much valued 
for making the best charcoal used for the manufacture of the 
finest gunpowder. 

Jujube {Zizyphus vulgaris). This is extensively spread 
throughout the South of Europe, North and West Africa, 
and Western Asia. It is a prickly entangled growing shrub, 
or, when cultivated, assumes the character of a small tree. 
The fruit is pulpy and of an oval form, about the size of a 
plum, which is either preserved or dried, and known as 
jujubes; they are much used in the countries where it is 
cultivated. The jujube lozenges are flavoured with this 
fruit, but are not always genuine. 

Zizyplius jujuha. A tree, native of India and China, 
ha-ving fruit similar to the last. It is extensively cultivated 
in China, and there are said to be as many as 60 varieties, 
differing in the size and colour of their fruit. 

Zizyplius Lotus. A native of North and West Africa. It 
is a rambling growing shrub with strong hooked spines and 
a berried fruit of a yellow colour, which is converted into 
a sort of bread ; a drink is also made from it, and with the 
bread forms a considerable part of the diet of the natives. It 
is one of the plants supposed to have been the food of the 
ancient people called Lotophagi. The fruit of Zizyphns 
sinensis is occasionally to be seen in Covent Garden Market, 
where it is sold as "Japonicas." 



THE BUCKTHORN FAMILY. 



437 



Christ's Thorn {Paliurus aculeatus and P. Spina- Christi). 
Prickly shrubs, often of a climbing habit, with strong curved 
prickles, natives of the South of Europe and Western Asia. 
In Palestine the latter has been observed as a tree 40 feet 
high. 

Cooper's-wood [Poniaderris apetala). A moderate sized, 
erect, branching tree, with elliptical lance-shaped hoary 
leaves, probably the tallest tree of the family, native of New 
South Wales. Its wood is hard and is used for many pur- 
poses. This and several other species of the genus are 
showy greenhouse plants. 

(HlPPOCRATEACE^.) 

Trees, or climbing shrubs, with opposite, simple leaves, and 
small deciduous stipules. Flowers inconspicuous, generally 
axillary. Petals 5. Stamens 3, rarely 5, united, and forming 
a tube, with a cup-like base. Fruit a 3-winged, 3-celled like 
samar, drupe, or berry. Nearly 100 species are recorded as 
belonging to this family, natives chiefly of the tropics, the 
greater number being found in South America. The genus 
Hippocratea consists of about 30 species of a woody tree-like 
character, but requiring the support of other trees. 

Tontelea pyriformis. A native of Sierra Leone, having a 
fruit about the size of a Bergamot pear, very rich in flavour. 

Kohoona Zeylanica. A tree, from 50 to 60 feet high, native 
of Ceylon, from the bark of which the Cinghalese make a 
kind of snulf ; an oil is expressed from the seeds. 

SAXIFRAGE, HYDRANGEA, AND LYTHRUM 
ALLIANCE. 

Tlie Henna Family. 

(Lythrace^.) 

Herbs or small shrubs, the stems and branches generally 
4-sided. Leaves simple, opposite, or whorled, rarely alter- 
nate. Flowers solitary, axillary, or in terminal spikes, or 



488 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



racemes. Calyx straight or oblique, generally ribbed. 
Petals 4, 5, or 6, or wanting. Stamens 8, or more. Fruit a 
membranous capsule, enclosed in a persistent calyx. 

About 300 species constitute this family , which are widely 
dispersed, being represented in India by the beautiful shrub 
Lagerstrcemia indica, a well known plant in the greenhouses 
of this country ; and in Brazil by the equally beautiful 
shrubby genus Diplusodon, none of which have yet been 
introduced. 

Ly thrum Salicaria. This is one of our most beautiful 
British plants, growing on margins of rivers, ponds, and 
watery places. It attains the height of 2 to 3 feet, termi- 
nating in spikes of bluish pink flowers. 

Henna or Khenna (Lawsonia inermis). A native of 
Western Asia, Egypt, and African coasts of the Mediter- 
ranean. It is a shrub 8 to 10 feet high, having oval lance- 
shaped leaves, and panicles of white sweet-smelling flowers. 
It is of ancient repute as a cosmetic, the leaves being 
powdered and made into a paste, and used in Egypt for 
colouring the finger nails and the hair and beard, im- 
parting a yellow colour, which is considered to add to 
beauty ; the manes of horses were even coloured with it. 
This practice has descended from very remote ages, as 
proved by" the evidence of Egyptian mummies. It was also 
in early repute amongst the Hebrews, being the plant spoken 
of in the Song of Solomon* under the name of Camphire. 
In- Jamaica it has become naturalized, and is there called 
Jamaica Mignonette. This plant sometimes becomes spiny, 
and is known under the names of L. spinosa and L. alba, 
but they, are now considered to be only one species. 

Jarool or Bloodwood {Lagerstrcemia regince). A large 
timber tree, with blood-red coloured wood. It is a native 
of the Peninsula and other parts of India and Burmah, and 
on account of its great durability in water is much used for 
boat and shipbuilding, and other purposes. 



* Chap. i. ver. 14 ; and chap. iv. ver. 13. 



THE SAXIFRAGE FAMILY. 



439 



Tulip-wood {Physocalymma Jlorihunda). A small deci- 
duous tree, native of Brazil, having panicles of purplish 
flowers, which are produced before the leaves. The wood 
is much esteemed by cabinet-makers, and is imported for 
inlaying costly furniture. 

(Stackhousiack^.) 

A small family of probably 20 species of herbs, or small 
frutlets, with simple alternate leaves, and small flowers in 
terminal spikes or racemes, white or yellow. Stamens 5. 
Pistils 3 or 5, united at the base. Fruit 3 to 5 winged, or 
wingless. 

They are natives chiefly of Australia. Stackhousia australis 
has yellow flowers, and has been grown at Kew. 

The Saxifrage Family. 

(Saxifragaceje.) 

Annuals or perennials, often frutlets, usually growing in 
tufts ; having simple, entire, lobed, or much divided leaves ; 
often moss-like, or rayed from the centre (rosulate). Flower 
stems simple or branching. Flowers regular. Calyx in- 
ferior (or partially superior?) Petals generally 5. Stamens 
5 or 10, free. Pistils 2. Fruit a dry 1- or 2-ceried horned 
capsule, containing numerous small seeds. 

This family contains above 300 species, natives chiefly of 
the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere ; a few are 
found in elevated situations within the tropics, and the 
family is represented in Terra del Fuego and New Zealand 
by Donatia. Saxifraga Jlagellaris is found within the Arctic 
circle. They possess slightly astringent qualities, which 
being powerful in Heuchera americana, it has received the 
name of Alum Root. Many of them are favourite garden 
plants, especially the genus Saxifraga, of which there are 
nearly 100 species in garden collections, varying in habit and 
character from the broad-leaved S. crassifolia to the rosulate 
S. pyramidalis and tufty moss-like S. Hypnoides. They are 



440 



DOMESTIC BOTANY, 



in general capable of enduring great drought, and are thus 
well adapted for rockwork. About a dozen are natives of 
this country, S. granulata being a beautiful moist meadow 
plant, flowering early in spring. The well-known London 
Pride {S. umhrosa) is found in abundance in Ireland. The 
pendulous or Bear's-ear Saxifrage (aS^. sarmentosd) is a 
favourite window ornament ; it is a native of China, and 
was introduced about one hundred years ago. 

The Australian Pitcher Plant {Cephalotus follicularis) is 
considered by some botanists to be the type of a distinct 
family called Cephalotacece ; but there is much difference of 
opinion as to its affinity with other families; there ap- 
pears good reason for considering it allied to the present. 
It is a singular little plant, growing in the form of a rosette, 
not exceeding 3 to 4 inches in diameter, having small, 
narrow, spathulate leaves, alternate with which are foot- 
stalks bearing small pitchers furnished with a lid attached 
on the inner side, and resembling a saucepan or goblet, the 
footstalk corresponding to the handle. The flowers are 
small, and borne on an erect stalk 6 inches or more in height, 
forming a spike. There is no corolla, but the calyx is 
coloured and 6-parted, bearing 12 stamens. The fruit has 
6 distinct carpels. It is a native of marshy places in King 
George's Sound, Australia, and was first introduced to the 
Eoyal Gardens, Kew, in 1823, but it continues to be a rare 
plant and is considered a great curiosity. 

Another small family, consisting of a few Chilian species 
called Francoacece, is also considered to be allied to Saxifra- 
gacece. They consist of low frutlet- stemmed plants, having 
soft villose, oblong or deeply lobed, almost winged leaves, 
and straggling, branching flower-stems 2 to 3 feet in length, 
bearing pretty white or pink flowers. Francoa ramosa, F. 
appendiculata^ and F^ sonchifolia were introduced at Kew 
nearly forty years ago. They are ornamental greenhouse 
plants. 



441 



The Hydrangea Family. 

(HyDRANGE ACE^ .) 

Small shrubs, creepers, or adherent climbers. Leaves 
opposite, entire, or lobed. Flowers in cymes or umbels, the 
exterior ones, or often the whole, abortive, the calyx be- 
coming a petaloid involucre of a blue or pink colour. True 
flowers small. Petals 4 or 6, inserted on the calyx. Stamens 
3 or more, in two rows. Pistils 2 or 5, free. Fruit a 2- or 
5 -celled capsule bearing permanent styles. 

Of this family about fifty species are known, natives chiefly 
of China, Japan, and North America. The American species, 
Hydrangea quercifolia, H. nivea, and H. arhorescens, are hardy 
in this country ; as also is li. Japonica ; but the species that 
gives fame to the genus is H. hortensis, the showy flowers of 
which are abortive, and consist of 4 or 5 enlarged coloured 
sepals only. The Hydrangea was introduced from China in 
1790. 

Adamia versicolor is a soft-wooded frutlet with pretty blue 
flowers, native of Nepaul, as also Hydrangea altissima, a species 
creeping like ivy. Both have been long grown at Kew. 

(CuNONIACEiE.) 

Trees or shrubs. Leaves opposite, sometimes in whorls, 
simple or winged, furnished with broad leafy, or small scale- 
like stipules. Flowers small, in round heads, spikes, or ra- 
cemes. Petals 4 or 5, or wanting. Stamens 8 to 10, or 
many, seated on a more or less perigynous disk. Fruit a dry 
2-celled closed capsule. 

About 100 species constitute this family. They are 
chiefly natives of Australia, New Zealand, temperate South 
America, and South Africa ; a few are found in India. 

The bark of W einmannia racemosa^ a tree, native of New 
Zealand, has been found useful for tanning. About half a 
dozen species have been introduced, and form ornamental 
greenhouse plants. 



442 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Acrophyllum venosum, a native of New South Wales, is a 
favourite show plant. 

Cunonia capensis, a native of the Cape of Good Hope. A 
small tree, having winged leaves and large stipules, the whole, 
as well as the root, being of a reddish colour, the latter 
smelling like carrots. At the Cape it is known by the name 
of " Blood Elze." 

t f f Stamens hypogynous. 
VIOLET, TAMARISK, AND BARBERRY ALLIANCE. 

The Sundew Family. 

(Droserace^.) 

Small herbs, rosulate perennials (rarely frutlets). Leaves 
round or spathulate, entire or divided, fringed with glandu- 
lar hairs, or the upper portion fringed with cilia, or (as in 
Aldrovanda) with floating appendages. Flowers solitary or 
in spikes. Sepals 5. Petals 5, each imbricate in the bud. 
Stamens 5 to 10. Pistils 3 to 5. Fruit a 3- or 5-valved 
capsule. Seeds numerous. 

This pretty family of plants consists probably of nearly 
100 species, the greater number belonging to the genus 
Drosera (Sundews). They are found in marshy places 
throughout warm and temperate regions. In Western Aus- 
tralia several species grow in dry places, while Aldrovanda 
vesiculosa^ a native of the South of Europe, floats in water. 
Drosera rotundifolia and D. longifolia are the well-known 
Sundews of this country. The leaves of the Australian 
species of Drosera are entire and almost plain, like primrose 
leaves, and contain a dye which stains paper red. 

Venus's Fly-trap (Dionoea muscipula). A remarkable 
plant, with leaves rising from a centre in the form of a 
rosette, each leaf consisting of two parts, the lower part 
being linear and terminated by two distinct lobes about the 
size of the thumb-nail. The margin of each lobe is fringed 
with cilia, and the disk is furnished with from 3 to 5 hairs. 



THE TAMAKISK FAMILY. 



443 



On these being touched by an insect, the lobes immediately 
collapse like a common rat-trap, and remain closed until 
the insect ceases to move. This action can also be witnessed 
by touching the hairs with a fine point. It is a very rare 
plant, being found in a very small area near Wilmington, 
in South Carolina, United States. 

The Tamarisk Family. 

(Tamaricace^.) 

Shrubs, rarely trees, with rod-like, smooth bay-coloured 
stems, having twiggy branches closely furnished with small 
heath-like, alternate leaves. Flowers in spikes or spiked 
racemes, having a feathery appearance when mature. Calyx 
persistent. Petals 5. Stamens 5 or 10. Pistils 3. Fruit 
a 3-valved capsule, with numerous feathered seeds. 

About 40 species are enumerated of this family. They 
are chiefly natives of Middle and Southern Europe, North 
Africa, Northern Asia, and India, generally near the coast. 

Tamarix gallica. A common and beautiful shrub, native 
of this country, especially of Cornwall, Hampshire, and 
Kent, to the shores of which counties it is an ornament. Few 
plants are more widely distributed than this, being found on 
the coasts of the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, in Western 
Asia, Himalayas, Tartary, and Japan. In Tartary sheep 
are fed on the tops of the dwarf plants. Its ashes contain a 
quantity of sulphate of soda. 

Tamarix^ or, as now called, Myricaria germanica^ is a 
shrub similar to the last, but differing in the flowers having 
10 stamens. It is common throughout Germany and many 
other parts of Europe. 

Manna {Tamarix mannifera). A shrub, similar in habit 
to the preceding, native of Syria and the wilderness of the 
Israelites about Mount Sinai. The stem is punctured by an 
insect, when a juice exudes which hardens, and is collected 
and made into cakes that receive the name of Manna. It 
consists of a mucilaginous sugar, and forms an article of 



444 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



commerce with the Bedouin Arabs, who preserve it in 
bottles and use it in the same manner as honey. It is by 
some supposed to be the manna of Scripture, but does not 
agree with the description given of that substance. (See 
Manna, page 107). 

Salt Tree (Tamarix onentalis), A native of Western 
India. It is a most remarkable tree, and of rapid growth. 
Trees, six or seven years of age, measure 5 feet in girth, and 
fall in twenty years from old age. It contains n:uch salt, 
with which the tree becomes encrusted, and is used by the 
natives to season their food. The wood when burned has 
a very offensive odour. 

The Sea-Heath Family. 

(Feankexiace^.) 

Herbs, shrubs, or small frutlets. Leaves opposite, with 
a membranous sheathing base. Flowers solitary, sessile, 
and closely surrounded with leaves, generally pink. Sepals 
4 or 5, united in a tube. Petals 4 or 5, often with a nectary 
appendage. Stamens 4 to 6, or more. Pistils 1- 2- or 
3-parted. Fruit a 1- celled valve capsule, enclosed within 
the calyx. 

This family consists of above 20 species, all widely dis- 
tributed over Europe, Noith Africa, and Austraha. Fran- 
kenia pulvernlenta and F. Icevis, both traihng plants, are found 
on the sea-shores in Britain. F. paucijlora, a pretty green- 
house frutlet, native of New South Wales, has been long 
cultivated at Kew. Beatsonia portulacifolia^ an erect stiff 
shrub, is found only in the island of St. Helena, but is now 
believed to be extinct. 

In alliance ^s^-ith FranJceniacecE is a small family called 
Viviamacece, consisting of a dozen or more species of herbs 
or slender frutlets, with hoary leaves and pretty pink and 
white fiowers. They are natives of Chili. Viviania cristata 
has been introduced at Kew. 



445 



The Porewort Family. 

(TREMANDRACEiE. ) 

Small twiggy shrubs, with heath-like, alternate, or whorled 
leaves, furnished with glandular hairs. Flowers solitary, 
pink, or purple, showy, consisting of 4 or 5 equal involute 
petals. Stamens 8 or 10, 2 to each petal. Anthers opening 
by a pore. Fruit capsular. 

This family consists of about 20 species, belonging chiefly 
to the genera Tremandra and Tetratlieca. They are natives 
of Australia. Several species have been introduced, and 
form ornamental greenhouse plants. Besides being heath- 
like in habit, they also agree with the Heath family in the 
anthers opening by a pore, but their polypetalous flowers 
separate them from that alliance. 

The Violet Family. 

(VlOLACE^.) 

Herbs, small shrubs, soft frutlets, or large trees. Leaves 
alternate, rarely opposite, simple, entire, or lobed, with 
stipules. Flowers solitary, on long footstalks, or several 
together. Petals 5, equal or unequal, 1 generally spurred. 
Stamens 5, often with a gland at their base. Fruit a 
3-valved capsule, with numerous seeds, fleshy, drupe-like, 
or berried. 

This family comprises about 800 species, the principal 
being natives of Europe, Northern Asia, and North Ame- 
rica. These are wholly herbaceous, while others, natives of 
tropical America, consist of pretty shrubs and trees. 

Seven species of Viola are natives of Britain, the most con- 
spicuous of which is V. odorata^ growing on banks and in 
shady hedgerows, its pretty blue flowers perfuming the air. 
Vast quantities of these are collected in the spring, and sold 
in all large towns. The garden double variety is most highly 
prized, especially the Neapolitan, which forms a frutlet 
stem 6 inches in height, and is called the tree violet. 



446 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Heartsease or Pansy ( Viola tricolor). An annual, also a 
native of Britain. In its wild state it has small white or 
yellowish flowers, but by cultivation many varieties have 
been raised of large size and singular beauty, known under 
the name of Pansies. 

lonidimn Ipecacuanha. A shrub, native of Brazil, the root of 
which, with that of other species, is used for ipecacuanha. 

Scliweiggeria paucifiora. A small Brazilian shrub, long 
introduced at Kew, and is interesting in having pretty white 
violet-shaped flowers. 

Hymmanthera dentata. A strong growing shrub, or rather 
small tree, native of New South Wales. It grows freely in the 
greenhouse, producing abundance of pendulous green flowers. 

Leonia glycycarpa. A tree, native of Peru, having alter- 
nate, oblong, firm leaves, and loose panicles of yellow flowers. 
Its fruit is about the size of a peach, having a rough, netted 
skin, and containing a sweet pulp, which is eaten by the 
natives. 

In alliance with Violacece is the small family Sauvagesia- 
cece, consisting of from 15 to 20 known species, principally 
natives of tropical America and the Malayan Islands. They 
are small annual or perennial herbs or shrubs, having alter- 
nate feathery-veined leaves with fringed stipules, and pretty 
white, pink, blue, or yellow flowers in terminal panicles or 
racemes, or solitary. In Brazil Sauvagesia erecta is called 
the herb of St. Martin, and is used medicinally. 

Luxemhurgia ciliosa is a small neat shrub, with oblong ellip- 
tical fringed leaves, and pretty yellow flowers. It has been 
cultivated in this country ; some botanists place it in Ochna- 
cesd, which seems a natural position for it. 

Great differences of opinion exist as to the relationship of 
the pretty plant, Grass of Parnassus, Parnassia palustris, some 
placing it with Sundews, Saxifrages, and St. John's Worts ; 
but an eminent botanist has lately shown it to be more natu- 
rally connected with this family. 



447 



The Gum Seed Family. 

(PiTTOSPORACEiE.) 

Small trees or shrubs, sometimes spiny ; or climbers, with 
alternate simple leaves. Flowers bell-like, solitary, or several 
together, axillary, or terminal, blue or white. Petals some- 
times partially united. Fruit a valved capsule, containing 
seeds embedded in gum ; or a round or oblong pulpy berry ; 
or flat and partially winged, with two seeds. 

Nearly 100 species constitute this family. They are chiefly 
natives of Australia and New Zealand, also of China and other 
widely separated localities, but are not known in America. 
They present two distinct habits of growth. Pittosporum, 
consisting of trees and shrubs, with sweet-smelling flowers, 
like Lily of the Valley. P. Tobira, native of China, a shining 
leaved shrub, has been known to stand several years in the 
open air of this country. P. undulatum is a tree, native of 
New South Wales, where it gl-ows from 70 to 80 feet in 
height ; its wood is similar to Box. In the Azores it is ex- 
tensively planted to shelter the orange plantations. Billar- 
diera, Solly a, and their allies are slender twining plants, 
usually with pretty blue flowers, natives of Australia, and 
well known as ornamental plants in greenhouses. 

The Barberry Family. 

(Berberidace^.) 

Evergreen or deciduous shrubs, rarely trailing ; generally 
with prickly stems and leaves ; or perennial, with running 
or tuberous roots. Leaves simple or variously compound, 
alternate; footstalks somewhat sheathing at their base. 
Flowers solitary, in panicles or racemes. Petals 4, 5, or 6, 
with gland-like appendages at their base. Stamens 4, 5, 6, or 
9. Pistil, generally short. Fruit an oblong or round pulpy 
berry, or capsule, containing one or more seeds. 

About 100 species are known of this family. They are 
natives of the cooler regions of the temperate zone, also of 
the southern parts of South America, but none are found in 



448 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



South Africa, Australia, or Islands of tlie Pacific. They 
have astringent properties. 

Barberry {Berheris vulgaris). A deciduous shrub, native 
of Britain and most parts of Europe and of North America, 
growing to the height of 7 or 8 feet. It is found in dry 
places, in woods, coppices, and hedges. The pretty bunches 
of red fruit are well known, and form a pleasant acid pre- 
serve ; the unripe ones are pickled as a substitute for capers. 
The bark is of a yellow colour, very astringent, and is used for 
dyeing and tanning leather. The fruits of the allied Indian 
species are dried in the sun like raisins. The Barberry is 
extremely subject to a mildew fungus called u^cidium 
Berberidis, at one tim3 supposed to be the cause of rust in 
wheat, which led to its extirpation from hedgerows. But 
the microscopical examinations of Bauer proved the Bar- 
berry and wheat funguses to be two distinct species.* 
The section with pinnate leaves called Mahonia, consists of 
several species, natives of North Western America, which 
are ornamental plants in the shrubberies of this country, 
and in many places are planted as shelter for game. Ber- 
heris Foriunei and B. Bealei, are natives of China, and differ 
from the preceding in having single stems and winged 
leaves, forming small erect trees. 

Nandina domestica. An erect single-stemmed shrub, like 
a small tree, bearing tufts of compound leaves on its apex, 
terminated with panicles of flowers, followed by red berries 
like those of holly. It is a native of China, and at the season 
in the Chinese religion answering to our Christmas, it is used 
for decorating houses and altars in temples, and bears the 
name of Sacred Bamboo. 

In 1862 a plant was introduced under the name of Ber- 
heridopsis corallina, native of Valdivia, in Chili. It is of scan- 
dent habit, having simple leaves and pendulous racemes of 
red flowers, which, as well as the trailing stem and fruit, seem 
to unite the family Lardizabalacece with that of BerheridacecB. 

* More recent investigations tend to revive the original idea that 
they are different forms of the same species. 



THE INDIAN PLUM FAMILY. 



449 



' The genus Epimedium consists of pretty, low herbaceous 
plants, 6 to 12 inches high, natives of Europe, Northern 
Asia, and Japan. 

Several species are cultivated in botanic gardens. E. alpi- 
nurn, called Barrenwort, is considered a native of this country, 
but it is rare. 

The Indian Plum Family. 

(Flacourtiace^.) 

Shrubs or small trees, sometimes spiny, with alternate, 
entire, or toothed leaves. Flowers small, axillary, solitary, 
or in small umbels, some unisexual. Petals 4 to 5 or more, 
or absent. Stamens 6 to 10, or very numerous. Fruit cap- 
sular, 1 -celled, indehiscent or valved, sometimes fleshy and 
pulpy. Seeds numerous. 

Above 80 species represent this family, all being widely 
distributed throughout the tropics, but sparingly represented 
in South Africa and New Zealand. 

Indian Plum (Flacourtia cataphracta, and F. Ramontchi). 
Small trees, natives of Madagascar and India. The fruit of 
the latter is about the size of a plum, of a sharp but sweetish 
taste. F. sepiaria, a stiff spiny bush, is in common use in 
India for forming hedges. 

Arnatto (Bixa Orelland). A small tree, originally native 
of South America, but now widely dispersed throughout the 
tropical regions. It has round cordate leaves, similar to, but 
larger than, those of the lime tree. The fruit consists of a flat 
roundish pod, which, when ripe, is covered with bristles of a 
reddish brown colour, and contains numerous seeds enclosed 
in an orange-red waxy pulp, which hardens when dry, and is 
the dye called Arnatto. It is separated from the seeds by 
steeping them in water, after which it is dried and made into 
rolls and cakes. It forms a considerable article of commerce, 
and the Indians of Guiana and other parts of tropical America 
paint their bodies with it. In this country it is used by 
silk-dyers and varnish -^makers, also for colouring cheese, 
chocolate, and adulterated milk. 

G G 



450 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



The fruit of Aheria caffra, called Kei Apple, a native of 
Natal, makes an excellent preserve. The pulp of the fruit 
of Oncoha spinosa, also a native of Natal, is likewise eaten, 
and the hard shell is made into ornamental snuff-boxes. 

(Ol^acace^.) 

Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, entire. Flowers 
small, axillary, in heads or short racemes. Petals 4 to 6, 
free, or united in pairs. Stamens free, or variously united 
to each other. Fruit drupe-like, one-celled, one-seeded, 
often surrounded by an enlarged fleshy calyx. 

A small family, of about 50 species, all widely distributed 
within or near the tropics, both in the Old and New World. 
The principal and best known genera are Olax, Heistena, and 
Ximmia. The fleshy fruits of some are eaten by the natives, 
but in general they are austere ; the wood of Olax Zeylanica 
has a very foetid odour, and in Ceylon is supposed to be efii- 
cacious in levers. 

KUE, QUASSIA, AND BEAN CAPER ALLIANCE. 
The Rue Family. 

(RUTACE^.) 

Trees or shrubs, rarely herbs. Leaves broad or heath- 
like, alternate, simple, or winged, full of aromatic resinous 
cells. Flowers solitar}^, or in spikes, panicles, or racemes. 
Petals 4 or 5, or their bases united, forming a ring or tube. 
Stamens free, or united in a tube, partially perigynous. 
Fruit a dr}^ valvular capsule, single, or several united, each 
cell containing 1 or 2 crustaceous seeds. 

An extensive family, consist ng of above 400 species, all 
widely distributed, many being pretty flowering shrubs, 
natives of South Africa and Australia ; in tropical America 
and India the family is represented by lofty trees, and in 
EMro])e by the herbaceous genus Fraxinella. 

Rue {Rata graveolens). This well-known shrub is a 
narive of the South of Europe, Western Asia, and Palestine. 



THE RUE FAMILY. 



451 



It was held in high favour as a medicinal plant by the 
ancients, being for many ages considered a preventive of 
contagion, and was called the herb of grace. It has been 
long cultivated in gardens, and is still often used as a do- 
mestic medicine in the form of tea ; its repute is due perhaps 
to its possessing a strong odour rather than to any active me- 
dicinal principle it contains. It is also used by spirit dealers 
to impart false flavour to spirits, 

Buku [Diosiua crenulata). This, and other allied species 
are neat little shrubs, natives of the Cape of Good Hope. 
They have small crenated leaves, full of oil-cells, having a 
strong fragrant odour, and are imported for medicinal pur- 
poses. The Hottentots make a powder of the leaves, which 
they mix with grease, and then daub their bodies, this 
constituting an important part of their toilet ; Buku steeped 
in brandy, is also a favourite with them in all complaints. 

Angostura Bark (^Galipea officinalis , or G. Cusparia). A 
native of North Brazil and Guiana. It is a tall tree with 
trifoliate leaves, its bark being the true Angostura Bark, the 
virtues of which are said to be equal to quinine. xA.ngostura 
Bark Bitters are highly esteemed in the United States. 

Cape Chestnut [Calodendron capense). A beautiful tree, 
native of the Cape of Good Hope, having broad elliptical 
leaves, and showy white flowers, followed by round prickly 
fruit about the size of a walnut, containing shiny black seeds, 
not unlike imperfect sweet chestnuts. It was introduced 
into this country in 1789 ; a plant at Kew attained the 
height of 25 feet, with a diameter of 5 inches. 

Cyminosma ohlongifolia, A tree with simple, oblong, 
dotted leaves, is, according to A. Cunningham, one of the 
Yellow woods of Moreton Bay. 

Fraxinella {Dictamnus Fraxinella and D. alhd). Well- 
known showy plants, natives of the South of Europe and 
Western Asia. The whole of the plant is covered with glan- 
dular dots of strong aromatic odour, said to emit a volatile 
oil, which impregnates the air to that extent that on a light 
being held close to the plant it is followed by a flash, and 
G G 2 



452 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



many people, who wish to account for everything naturally, 
call it the Burning Bush of Moses. The writer has, how- 
ever, tried the experiment, but has never succeeded in seeing 
the flash. 

Many of this family are favourites in the greenhouses of 
this country, such as the genera Boronia, Correal and Erio- 
stemon of Australia, and Diosma of South Africa. 

The Quassia Family. 

(SiMARUBACEiE.) 

Large trees or shrubs with winged, rarely simple, leaves. 
Flowers in sjDikes or racemes, some imisexual. Sepals and 
petals 4 or 5 each. Stamens 4 to 10. Pistil 1. Fruit a 
single 1-seeded drupe, or several seated round a receptacle, 
forming a compound fleshy fruit. ' 

About 50 species compose this family. They are natives 
chiefly of India, Java, and tropical America. The whole are 
bitter and tonic, many being used medicinally in their native 
countries. 

Quassia {Quassia amara). A small tree, native of Suri- 
nam and Guiana, and now cultivated in the West Indies. It 
has winged leaves, and spikes of red flowers ; its wood was 
at one time largely imported to this country, and on account 
of its bitterness was used as a substitute for hoj)s, but has 
now been superseded by the bitter wood of Jamaica, Picrasma 
or Picrcsna excelsa, the Quassia wood of the shops, which is 
so bitter that cups made of it impart bitterness to water 
allowed to remain some time in them ; hence the " Bitter 
Cup." An infusion of Quassia chips is found destructive to 
fl.ies. It was once in high repute for its efiicacy in fevers, 
but is now seldom used. 

Simaruba Bark (Simaruba amara). A tree, native of the 
West Indies and Guiana, attaining the height of 20 feet. 
It has crooked branches ; the bark is extremely bitter, 
and is used in the form of a decoction for many com- 
plaints. 



THE YELLOW- WOOD FAMILY. 



453 



Cedron (Simaha Cedron). A remarkable tree, native of 
New Grenada and Darien, and other parts of Central Ame- 
rica. It is of erect growth, not much disposed to branch, and 
has winged leaves like the Ash. The fruit, which is covered 
with short downy hairs, is about as large as a swan's egg, 
and has the appearance of an unripe peach. It contains a 
single seed, which easily separates into two fleshy cotyledons, 
about an inch in length and of a whitish colour. It has been 
long known as a bitter tonic, and is said to be a certain cure 
for the bites of snakes and other noxious animals ; it is 
highly valued in cases of fever. It was first brought into 
notice by the Buccaneers about the end of the seventeenth 
century, and is one of the few plants that still retain their 
medicinal reputation. It is now cultivated in Trinidad, and 
its seed forms an article of commerce. 

Ailanto (Ailantus glandulosa). A large tree, native of 
China, which in this country attains the height of 60 or 70 
feet, having a large head of branches and winged leaves, like 
the Ash. In France it is much planted as an avenue tree, 
and has lately come into reputation for feeding a new kind 
of silkworm, which, experiments show, might be turned to 
account in this country. The wood has a beautiful yellow 
grain and is used by cabinet-makers. 

The YeUow-wood Family. 

(Xanthoxylaceje.) 

Trees or shrubs, often with prickly stems, having alternate 
or opposite, simple or winged, leaves, with pellucid oil-cells. 
Flowers small, inconspicuous, some unisexual. Fruit a 
berry or a winged samar containing 1 or 2 seeds. 

About 100 species are enumerated of this family. They 
are widely distributed over tropical and temperate re- 
gions, the greater number being found in America. They 
all possess an aromatic and pungent property, and in some 
countries are called Peppers. 



454 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Toothache tree {Xanthoxylon fraxineum). A small tree 
Avith pinnate leaves, native of North America ; it lives in 
the open air in this country. Its bark is famed for the cure 
of toothache. 

Xanthoxylon clava-Herculis. A native of the West Indies ; 
it furnishes the black prickly walking-sticks often seen. 
X. piperita, the Pepper Tree of Japan, has berries about the 
size of black pepper, which are iised as such in Japan. Both 
have been introduced into this country, but they are not 
sufficiently hardy to bear the climate. 

The Bean- caper Family. 

(ZyGOPHYLL ACE ^. ) 

Trees, shrubs, or herbs. Leaves opposite, firm or soft, 
once or twice winged, consisting of one or more pairs of 
leaflets. Flowers solitary or in racemes. Petals 4 or 5. 
Stamens varying in number from 4 to 12, their base dilated. 
Fruit a dry or fleshy capsule, 4 or 5 angled or winged. 

This family consists of 100 or more species widely dis- 
tributed in temperate and tropical countries ; in some places 
forming extensive tracts of desert scrub. 

Lignum-vitae {Guaiacim officinale). A small tree, rising 
to the height of 20 or 30 feet, having a round head of stiff 
branches, and conjugate winged leaves, the whole of a 
yelloAvish tinge, and producing clusters of pretty blue 
flowers like Hepatica. It is a native of Jamaica and other 
West India Islands, and of parts of tropical America. Its 
wood is extremely hard, and contains a resin known as Gum 
Guaiacum, which has long been in use as a medicine. The 
wood, although of small size, is of great importance, and is 
extensively used in the dockyards, its hardness making it 
well suited for pulleys and the bearings of steam machi- 
nery. 

Bean-caper {Zygopliyllum Fahago). A desert plant, 2 to 
3 feet high, native of Syria, Egypt, and North Ajfrica. It is 
a soft-leaved shrub, having the leaves in pairs. Its flower 



THE BEAN-CAPER FAMILY. 



455 



buds are used as a substitute for Capers. Z. alburn^ a 
shrubby species, native of the Canary Islands, is grown in 
the greenhouses of this country. 

Honey-flower (^Melianthus major). A straggling soft 
wooded shrub with large pinnate-toothed glaucous leaves, 
having a strong Pea-meal smell. It is a native of the Cape 
of Good Hope, and grows and flowers well in the greenhouse, 
or even in the open air of this country when protected in 
winter. The flov/ers are of a dark brown colour, in long 
erect racemes, a foot or more in length, containing a large 
quantity of honey, which is collected by the natives of the 
Cape colony. 

Caltrops [Tribulus terrestris). A trailing spreading annual, 
with soft succulent leaves, native of Southern Europe, having 
hard capsular fruit, the valves of which are furnished with 
stiff spines which stand erect. 

Larrea mexicana. A shrub, 4 to 6 feet high, very 
abundant in some parts of Mexico, forming a dense scrub, 
particularly on the Colorado desert. It grows in the most 
sterile sandy soil. Its strong creasote odour renders it 
disagreeable to travellers, as also to animals. It is unfit lor 
firewood, as it can scarcely be made to burn, its only appa- 
rent use being to fix the desert sands. 

Balanites mgyptiaca. A scrubby thorny bush or small tree, 
having leaves growing in pairs. It is common throughout 
the deserts of Western Asia, Egypt, and many parts of North 
and Western Africa, where the fruit, which is the size of a 
walnut, is sometimes eaten, and from which an intoxicating 
drink is made by the natives. Its wood is hard, and is used 
by the turners of Jerusalem for making walking-sticks. An 
oil of a healing nature is obtained from the nuts, and as it 
grows abundantly in the valley of the Dead Sea, it is sup- 
posed to be one of the plants that produced the " Balm of 
Gilead." 

(OCHNACE^.) 

Small trees or shrubs, with simple alternate toothed leaves. 
Flowers solitary or in racemes, their petioles jointed. Petals 



456 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



generally 5 or 10. Stamens 5 to 10, or many, seated on a 
hypOgynous fleshy disk. Pistils several, united in 1. Fruit 
consisting of several seeded carpels, articulated to a fleshy 
base. 

This family consists of about 100 species, widely spread over 
all warm regions ; they contain a bitter principle. Species 
of Gompliia and Oclina are neat leaved shrubs with yellow 
flowers, sev^eral of which have been introduced. 

CORIARIE^. 

Small trees or shrubs, with erect or decumbent branches, 
and simple, opposite, smooth leaves, generally longitudi- 
nally veined. Flowers small, in long axillary racemes, some 
unisexual. Fruit, berries formed of the fleshy gland-like 
petals, enclosing 5 united ovaries, each containing a single 
seed. 

Not more than 4 species constitute this family. On ac- 
count of some peculiarity in the character of the flower as 
well as in habit, it is difiicult to determine the nearest 
alliance of this family, but most botanists place it near the 
Eue Family. 

Coriaria myrtifoUa. An erect shrub, with myrtle-like 
leaves, native of the South of Europe. It has received the 
name of Coriaria, meaning leather, on account of its being 
used in tanning. Its fruit is highly poisonous, fatal effects 
having occurred to soldiers in Spain through eating it. It is 
hardy in this country. 

Coriaria nepalensis. A more spreading species than the 
preceding, native of Nepal, where its fruit, which is not 
unwholesome, is said to be eaten. 

Coriaria I'uscifolia, known in gardens by the name of 
C. sarmentosa. A native of New Zealand. It is a shrub 
from 10 to 15 feet high, assuming the character of a small 
tree, having a stem 6 inches or more in diameter. It occu- 
pies large tracts of land, its presence indicating good soil. 
The fruit consists of a small black, shining, pulpy berry^ 
from which a refreshing wine is made by the natives. The 



THE ORANGE FAMILY. 



457 



seeds are poisonous, and eating them has proved fatal in 
several instances, the action being similar to that of Strych- 
nine, but not so rapid. It is called " Tutii" by the natives. 

C. thymifolia, also a native of New Zealand, and probably 
only a variety of the preceding. Both are also natives of 
Chili, but are not hardy in this country. 

ORANGE AND MYEEH ALLIANCE. 
The Orange Family. 

( AURANTIACEJE.) 

Evergreen trees or shrubs, sometimes climbing and spiny, 
simple or Tringed leaves, generally jointed with the foot- 
stalks, and frao^rant, being full of oil-cells. Flowers solitary, 
or in spiked racemes, generally white. Petals 3 to 5, free 
or partially united. Stamens 5 to 10 or more, fr-ee or 
united in one or more separate parcels. Fruit a pulpy berry, 
small and 1 -seeded, or large, fleshy, and many-seeded, as in 
the orange. 

About 100 species are known of this family, the greater 
number being natives chiefly of India and other warm coun- 
tries of the East, extending to China ; very few of America. 
In Florida thousands of acres are said to be occupied by the 
wild orange, which is believed to have been early introduced 
from Europe. All contain a volatile aromatic oil. 

Citron [Citrus medica). A thorny, much-branched tree, 
about 8 or 10 feet high, having pale green leaves, and an 
oblong fruit 5 or 6 inches long, with a rough yellowish rind. 
It takes the name Medica from the country of the Medes, 
where it is described by Theophrastus as having been culti- 
vated three hundred years before the Christian era ; it was 
also cultivated by the Jews after their return from captivity 
in Babylon. It is believed to have been introduced from 
Palestine into Italy by the Romans. The oil of citron is 
obtained from it. 

Lemon {Citrus Limonum). The Lemon is found wild in 



458 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Northern India, and is supposed to have migrated westward 
in early times. It was introduced into the South of Europe 
during the Crusades. 

Lime {Citrus Limetta). This and the preceding are 
similar to the Citron, differing only in the form of their 
fruit, and it is very questionable if they are distinct species. 
The fruit of this is somewhat oval, with a depression at the 
top. With the lemon it affords the Lime juice, useful as 
an antiscorbutic, and now extensively used on long sea 
voyages. 

Seville or Bitter Orange {Citrus Bigaradid). This has a 
bitter rind, which forms the principal Candied Orange-peel of 
the shops ; it also yields a bitter tincture. Our greatest im- 
port comes from Spain. 

Shaddock {Citrus decumand). Said to be a native of 
China, and now extensively cultivated in Jamaica and other 
West India Islands. It bears a large fruit, sometimes nearly 
2 feet in circumference, called Pompoleon, or more generally 
Pomaloe ; the smaller ones are called Forbidden Fruit, and 
are known by these names in the London fruit-shops. 

Sweet Orange {Citrus Aurantium). Found wild in India, 
but was early cultivated in Persia, and in course of time 
extended westward to the Mediterranean, thence to Italy, it 
is said about the eleventh century. Like other plants long 
cultivated by man, many varieties have sprung up, such as 
the Blood or Malta Orange, which has a small fruit with 
red rind and flesh. The Mandarin is also a small, rather 
flat fruit, having a thin rind, which, when ripe, readily 
separates from the pulp. It is very rich and sweet, and is 
extensively grown and highly prized in China. The Ber- 
gamot is a small-fruited orange, from which an essence is 
obtained, called Bergamot Oil. 

There are several others, such as the Finger Orange, but 
they are grown more for curiosity. 

The Orange, Lemon, and their principal varieties, form a 
considerable article of commerce, the great supply to this 
country coming from Malta and other parts of the Medi- 



THE MYRRH FAMILY. 



459 



terranean, Lisbon, and the Azores ; the Island of St. Michael's 
produces very fine oranges. 

Oranges for export are gathered before they are perfectly 
ripe, and on that account the true flavour is not known to 
those who eat them in this country. In France, and other 
parts, orange trees are much cultivated for the sake of their 
flowers, from which are distilled Orange Flower -water, Oil 
of Neroli, and Napha water. 

An immense quantity of Seville Oranges are used in making 
marmalade, and of the common or Sweet Orange for making 
wine. 

Kumquat (^Citrus Japonicd). A native of Japan and 
China. In Chusan it occupies extensive slopes of hills, 
bearing abundance of yellow fruit, which, when ripe, presents 
a very grand appearance. The fruit is preserved in jars, and 
forms an important article of export. The plant has been 
recently introduced into this country, but is too tender for 
the open air. 

Orange sticks are now largely used for walking-sticks ; 
and the wood, which is of a yellow colour, is used for in- 
laying. 

Bael or Bhel Fruit {^gle marmelos). A large tree, native 
of Coromandel and other parts of India, producing a fruit 
about the size of an orange, having a hard shell contain- 
ing 10 to 15 cells, filled with tenacious transparent gluten 
which is delicious and fragrant ; it is used as an aperient, 
and in other ways medicinally, and is much esteemed. 

The fruit of Feronia elephantum is the wood-apple or 
elephant' s-apple of India, the pulp of which is eaten by 
the natives. 

The Myrrh Family. 

(AMYRIDACEiE.) 

Trees or shrubs, with simple, ternate, or winged leaves, 
generally with pellucid aromatic oil-cells. Flowers in 
panicles or racemes, generally small, inconspicuous. Fruit 
dry and hard, sometimes splitting into valves. Fifty or 



460 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



more species represent this family, whicli are almost entirely 
tropical. They contain resinous balsamic juices, which 
constitute important drugs. 

Myrrh {Balsamodendron ]\hjrrha. B. Kataf^ and B. Opo- 
halsamum). Small, rude-growing trees, natives of Arabia. 
The first two yield Myrrh, and the last, wrongly called 
Balm of Gilead, or Balm of Mecca, is known as Opobal- 
samum. 

Balsomadendron Roxhurghii. A native of India, especially 
of Scinde and the western districts. It yields a resin 
called "Gogul." 

Balsamodendron Africanum^ a native of Eastern Africa, 
yields what is called African Bdellium. 

These balsam-yielding plants are natives of dry rocky 
places, some growing in limestone. The balsams are ob- 
tained by making incisions in the stems, from which the 
juice in some is collected as it flows, while in others it is 
allowed to harden on the trees. Some uncertainty prevails 
regarding the Arabian and African plants producing these 
balsams, which is increased through the product of one 
country being sent to another before export to Europe ; 
Bombay is a central port of shipment. 

Olibanum {Bosivellia tliurifera, by some called B. serrata^. 
A lofty tree, native of Central India, having the foliage 
crowded at the extremity of the branches. It produces the 
Ohbanum of commerce, which is obtained by incisions made 
in the bark, when the juice exudes and becomes hardened in 
transparent masses. When heated it is highly fragrant, and 
is used in Greek and Eoman Catholic churches under the 
name of frankincense.* 

In America the family is represented by large trees of 
Idea. I. altissiTna, a native of Guiana, attains the height 



* Since the above was written, a very elaborate paper on the 
balsam-yielding species of this family has been published by Dr. 
Birdwood in the Linnsean Society's Transactions. 



THE BEAD TREE FAMILY. 



461 



of 100 feet, and a diameter of 4 or 5 feet. Its -wood is light 
and hard, and is greatly used in making household furniture. 
The gum called Elemi is the produce of one or more species 
of Amyris, also of Canarium commune and other plants, as 
will be seen below. 

Jamaica Birch {Bursera giimmiferci) . A lofty tree, native 
of Jamaica, having brown bark like the Birch Tree of Europe. 
The fruit yields a balsamic turpentine, and on wounding the 
bark, a white liquor is obtained, which soon hardens, and is 
in no way different Irom Gum Elemi. Elaphrium tomen- 
tosum and E. elemiferum, natives of Mexico, also produce 
Gum Elemi. 

From one of those, or a species of Bursera, native of 
Mexico, is obtained a new perfume, which has lately come 
before the public under the name of " Lign Aloes," but it has 
no connexion with the Lign Aloes of Scripture. 

The Bead Tree Family. 

(Meliace^.) 

Trees or shrubs, with alternate, or sometimes opj)osite, 
simple, or compound -v^inged leaves. Flowers in panicles or 
racemes. Petals 4 or 5, Stamens 8 to 10, united, forming a 
long tube. Fruit a hard berry, drupe-like, or dry and cap- 
sular. 

This family consists of about 150 known species, all 
widely distributed throughout tropical regions, rarely beyond; 
one species is found in New Zealand. A strong astringent 
principle pervades the family, which when used in excess 
becomes dangerous. 

Bead Tree or Pride of India [Melia Azedarach). A tree, 
native of India, but more probably of China. It has now 
become indigenous throughout Western Asia, the regions of 
the Mediterranean, and the Southern United States of North 
America. In Italy and other parts of the South of Europe, 
it forms a beautiful tree ; it grows freely in the open air in 



462 



DOMESTIC BOTANV. 



this country, but requires protection in winter. In some 
countries it attains the height of 40 feet or more, having 
a dense head of compound winged leaves and erect spikes 
of sweet-scented lilac flowers, succeeded by pale blue ber- 
ries, about the size of currants, which are made into ro- 
saries. 

Crab Oil (Carapa guianensis). A large tree, native of 
Guiana, attaining the height of 60 to 80 feet, having large, 
shining winged leaves, of firm texture. Its fruit consists of 
a hard shell about 4 inches in diameter, containing a number 
of large brown, thick, wedge-shaped seeds, closely packed; 
from which, by pressure, an oil is obtained, used by the 
Indians for anointing their hair. It has been imported to 
this country. In Demerara the wood is used for many pur- 
poses; it takes a fine j)olish. 

C. guineensis is a similar tree, native of Western tropical 
Africa. It differs but little fi-om the preceding, except in 
having larger fruit, sometimes 6 inches in diameter. It also 
produces an oil. 

This family is represented throughout India and the Malayan 
Islands by many fine timber trees, belonging to the genus 
Melia, Sandoricum^ and Trichilia, species of the latter being 
also found in Australia. T. Australis^ called the Australian 
Lilac or White Cedar Tree, is one of the few deciduous trees 
of that country, while in New Zealand the lofty tree Har- 
tiglisia spectabilis is found. 

El:ehergia capensis, a small tree, represents the family at 
the Cape of Good Hope. 

(HUMIRIACE^.) 

This family consists of about 20 species of trees, having 
simple alternate leaves and small flowers, arranged in 
cymes ; fruit, a drupe. They are all natives of tropical 
America. 

Humirium halsamifemm, a native of French Guiana, and 
H. Jloribundum, native of Brazil. The bark of the former 
yields' a fragrant juice of a red, that of the latter one of a 



THE TEREBINTH FAMILY. 



463 



yellow colour, wtiicli is burnt as a perfume, and is also used 
as a remedy for tapeworm. 

The Terebinth family. 

(Terebinthace^.) 

Trees or shrubs, with alternate, simple, or winged leaves. 
Flowers small, generally in spikes or racemes ; some uni- 
sexual. Fruit generally a fleshy drupe, in some small and 
berry-like, in others, as the Mango, large, containing a single 
seed. 

A hundred or more species are recorded as belonging to 
this family ; they are widely distributed within the tropics 
of both hemispheres, also sparingly found in temperate 
America, Europe, China, and Japan; they are numerous in 
South Africa. All contain a very acrid poisonous juice of 
the character of tui-pentine ; nevertheless, some produce eat- 
able fruits, and others many useful substances. 

Mango [Mangifera indica). The Mango is a native of 
India, and now cultivated in most warm countries for the 
sake of its fine fruit, Avhich is about the size of a large pear. 
It has narrow lance-shaped leaves, 6 to 9 inches long. A 
good Mango is a delicious fruit, but an inferior one is 
like tow dipped in turpentine. It is very easily culti- 
vated in the hothouses of this country^ and has produced 
fine fruit. 

Cashew Nut {^Anacardium occidentale). A large tree, 
native of the West Indies, having strongly veined simple 
oblong leaves. The fruit or nut is of kidney shape, about 
an inch in diameter, seated on a fleshy receptacle or foot- 
stalk. The nut is enclosed in a thick leathery skin con- 
taining a black gummy fluid, which severely inflames the 
mouth if unwarily bitten, but these eff'ects are prevented by 
roasting. The fleshy receptacle is not unwholesome, and by 
fermentation yields a pleasant wine ; a spirit is also distiUed 
fi.'om it. A gum, like gum-arabic, is obtained from the tree, 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



and is imported under the name of Cadgii, being used as a 
wash to prevent the attacks of insects. 

Hog Plum {Spondias lutea). A tree, native of Ja- 
maica, growing to the height of 40 or 50 feet, and having 
much the appearance of the common ash. It is in general 
cultivation for its fruit, which is about the size of a walnut, 
of an oval shape and yellow colour, having flesh resembhng 
the common plum. They are not much appreciated, but are 
used for feeding swine. 

Spondias dulcis. A tree like the preceding, cultivated in 
many parts for its fruit, which is about the size of an apple, 
and of a yellowish colour. In Barbadoes it is called Golden 
Apple. It is common in many islands of the Pacific, and 
having originally come from Otaheite, has received the name 
of Otaheite Apple ; the rind has the flavour of turpentine, but 
the pulp is agreeable. 

Spondias tubet^osa. A native of Brazil, having fruit about 
the size of a plum, of an oblong form and yellowish colour, 
and of a sweetish acid flavour, but not eatable until thoroughly 
ripe. This tree is remarkable for producing long aerial roots, 
which do not penetrate deep into the ground, but at short 
distances form round black tubers, about 8 inches in dia- 
meter, of a cellular texture, charged with water, each con- 
taining about a pint. These form a natural supply to the 
tree in the time of drought, and are sometimes used by 
travellers where water is scarce. 

Pistachia Nut (Pistacia vera). A small tree, with glossy 
winged leaves, native of "Western Asia. It appears to have 
been introduced to Southern Europe about the beginning of 
the Christian era, where in some places it has become almost 
naturalized. Its fruit is somewhat larger than an olive, 
and contains a kernel which is largely eaten in the South 
of Europe, and is imported to this country as a dessert 
fruit. 

Mastic, or Lentisk (Pistacia Lentiscus^. A small tree, not 
exceeding 15 feet in height and 1 foot in diameter; native of 
all countries bordering on the Mediterranean. On incisions 



THE TEREBINTH FAMILY. 



being made in the stem, a resin called mastic" exudes, 
which is said to derive its name from the use made of it by 
the Turks, who chew or masticate it in order to sweeten their 
breath. In this country it is used for varnishing, also by 
dentists for stopping teeth. It is imported from several of 
the Greek islands, particularly from Scio. 

There is much doubt respecting the plant yielding the 
"balm of Gilead" carried by the Ishmaelites into Egypt; 
but by restricting the localities of the plant to the rocky 
country of Gilead, there seems little doubt that it was the 
juice of Pistacia Lentiscus which was anciently in repute for 
its healing virtues. 

Ohio Turpentine tree {Pistacia Terehinthus). A native of 
Western Asia and countries bordering the Mediterranean. 
The turpentine is obtained by incisions made in the stem, 
and is imported from the same ports as mastic. The first 
two are not hardy ; but a plant of the third has braved the 
winters of nearly one hundred years at Kew. Curious red- 
horned galls are produced on the trees, which are used for 
tanning Morocco leather. 

Marking nut {Semecarpus Anacardium). A tree, native 
of India, with large oblong leaves, and fruit borne on a 
fleshy receptacle similar to the Cashew nut. It is roasted 
and eaten by the natives. The black juice obtained from 
the unripe fruit is used in making ink, and, when mixed 
with quicklime, forms an indelible marking ink. Great care 
is requisite in using it, as, from its acrid nature, it is apt to 
cause severe inflammation. 

Japan lacquer {Rhus vernicifera\ A small tree, native 
of China and Japan, furnishing the famous varnish with 
which the Japanese lacquer their ware. 

Japanese wax [Rhus succedaneum) . An evergreen tree, 
with shining winged leaves, native of Japan, having bunches 
of fruit like small grapes, which by pressure yield a wax 
analogous to bees'-wax ; it is extensively imported to this 
country, and is used in making candles and night-lights. 
The plant has been long known in the botanic gardens 

H H 



466 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



of this country, but is not sufficiently hardy to stand the 
open air. 

Sumach (Rhus coriarid). A small shrub or tree, with 
pinnate leaves, abundant in all countries bordering the Medi- 
terranean. It yields the article called " sumach," which is 
used for tanning, and consists of the young shoots and leaves 
ground down ; it comes to this country chiefly from Sicily, 
where it is extensively cultivated. Another South European 
species is Rhus cotinus. 

Poison oak {Rhus Toxicodendron and R. radicans). Trail- 
ing, vine-like shrubs, with broad trifoliate leaves, natives of 
North America, and long known in the botanic gardens of 
this country. The leaves are highly poisonous, serious con- 
sequences having resulted from merely handling them ; 
but actual contact is not necessary, as they give off their 
baneful influences to the air, especially on hot days, causing 
headache and even sickness, R. venenata, also a native of 
North America, having winged leaves, is likewise very 
poisonous. 

Schimis molle. A Peruvian shrub, with light green 
winged leaves, and called Peruvian Mastic tree. The leaves 
contain a great quantity of odoriferous oil, and on breaking 
and throwing fragments of them into water, the oil is ex- 
pelled with such force as to cause them to jerk and twirl 
as if by spontaneous motion. In Italy it forms a pretty bush, 
but is not sufficiently hardy for the open air in this country. 

LithrcBa caustica. A stifE -branched shrub, with small oval 
leaves of a brownish colour, native of Chili ; it is dreaded by 
the natives for its baneful effects in blistering the skin. 

The Zebra- wood Family. 

(CONNARACE^.) 

Trees or shrubs, rarely climbers. Leaves alternate, winged. 
Flowers in panicles "or racemes with bracts. Fruit a capsule- 
like follicle, opening lengthways. 

This family consists of about 50 known species, natives of 



THE MAHOGANY FAMILY. 



467 



America and India, of which Connarus speciosus is a largo 
tree, plentiful throughout Pegu and Eangoon. The seeds 
abound in a sweet oil. 

Zebra-wood (Omphalobium Lamhertii). A large tree, na- 
tive of Guiana; it produces one of the woods called Zebra- 
wood, used by cabinet-makers. 

The Mahogany Family. 

(Cedrelace^.) 

Large trees, with alternate winged leaves, bearing panicles 
of small Howers. Petals 4 or 5. Stamens 8 or 10, free or 
united in a tube. Fruit a woody-valved capsule; containing 
flat winged seeds. 

About 30 large trees com.pose this family, natives of India, 
America, and Australia ; one or two are found in West 
Tropical Africa. They are famed for their timber. 

Mahogany (^Swietenia Mahagoni), A native of Jamaica and 
Tropical America. It is a large-growing tree, with winged 
leaves like the Ash. The timber is largely imported to this 
country for furniture-making, the best coming from the 
British possessions of Honduras ; one of the largest logs re- 
ceived in this country measured 4 by 5 feet square. 

Jamaica Cedar {Cedrela odorata). A large tree, native of 
Jamaica, and some parts of Tropical America, having leaves 
like the Mahogany tree, but of a paler colour, which, with 
the flowers and bark, have a most disagreeable odour, resem- 
bling assafoetida. The timber is extensively used in Jamaica. 
It is fine grained, and comes to this country under the name 
of Jamaica Cedar. C. Brasiliensis is a similar tree, native of 
South Brazil, where it attains the height of 120 feet. 

Toona or Chittagong Wood {Cedrela - Toona). A large 
tree, native of Bengal, and the forests of Pegu. The flowers 
have a sweet odour, resembling honey, and contain a yellow 
dye. The timber is fine, and close-grained. An allied tree, 
Chiclcrassia tabularis^ is also called Chittagong Wood. 

Australian Cedar {Cedrela australis). A large tree, native 
H H 2 



468 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



of New South Wales, sometimes measuring 20 or 30 feet in 
circumference. On account of the wood being extensively 
used by the colonists in house-building, large trees have be- 
come almost extinct. Judging from plants at Kew, it appears 
to be a fast grower, and does not seem specifically distinct 
from C. odorata. 

Satin Wood {Chloroxylon Swietenia). A large tree, native 
of Ceylon and Western India, and is much prized for its 
fine-grained, satin-like wood, which is imported to this 
country, its principal use being for making the backs of 
toilet and clothes-brushes, and articles of fine turnery. Satin 
Wood comes from some of the West India Islands, and other 
parts, but from trees not yet ascertained.* 

Yellow Wood {Oxleya Xanthoxyla). A native of the 
Eastern coast of Australia (now Queensland), attaining the 
height of 40 or 50 feet. Its wood is of a yellow colour, and 
is used for furniture. Allied to this is Flindersia australis, 
native of New South Wales, having wood like mahogany. 

THE MILKWORT, SOAP BERRY, AND MAPLE 
ALLIANCE. 

The Coca-Leaf Family. 

(Erythroxtlace^.) 

Small trees and shrubs, the young shoots often compressed 
and covered with imbricate scales. Leaves entire. Flowers 
small, rising from the axis of the leaves. Fruit a small oblong 
1-seeded drupe. 

This family is founded on the single genus Erythroxylon, 
which contains nearly 80 species. They are natives of the 
West Indies and Tropical America, also of the East Indies 
and other tropical regions, as well as of Australia. 

Coca-Leaf {Erythroxylon Coca). A shrub abundant in a 



* One is supposed to be a species of Maba, a tree belonging to the 
Ebony family. 



THE BARBADOES CHERRY FAMILY. 469 



wild state, and cultivated in many parts of New Grenada and 
Bolivia, for the sake of its leaves, which are of a stimulating 
nature. It attains the height of 6 to 8 feet, and is similar in 
appearance to the Tea tree. There are two varieties, the 
broad and narrow leaved, the latter being the more highly 
prized. The leaves are picked and scorched in an earthen- 
ware pan, and, after being dried, are ready for use. It is in 
general use by the Indians, both men and women, who, after 
partaking of their morning meal, stuff a loose handful of 
leaves into their mouths, with a little calcined lime ; a 
few fresh leaves are constantly added during the day, the 
cheek assuming the appearance of being swollen ; this, with- 
out any other food, enables them to perform a hard day's 
work. The Indians who chew this appear to become some- 
what corpulent ; their eyes assume a glassy appearance, and 
their features have a languid expression of dreamy compla- 
cency. It is not ascertained whether its excessive use shortens 
life, but aged Indians have been seen sitting quietly chewing 
Coca. Its effects are similar to those of opium. 

The Barbadoes Cherry Family. 

(Malpighiace^e.) 

Trees or shrubs, many of them twining climbers. Leaves 
generally opposite, or more in a whorl, glossy, and shining, 
entire, with glands on their petioles. Many furnished with 
stiff hairs attached by their centre, and lying flat on the sur- 
face of the leaf Stipules small or large. Flowers solitary, 
in spikes or racemes, generally yellow and showy. Calyx 5 
parted with glands at the base. Petals 5. Stamens 5 or 10, 
free or united. Styles 3 or 5. Fruit drupe-like and angular, 
or dry and winged. 

This family consists of about 600 species, widely distri- 
buted throughout the tropical and subtropical regions, the 
greater part being natives of America. The climbing portion 
abound in Brazil, interlacing the trees of the forest and trail- 
ing over rocky places. 



470 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Malpighia glabra and M. punicifoUa, have pulpy furrowed 
fruits, about the size of cherries, which are eaten, and being 
originally found in Barbadoes, are called Barbadoes Cherries. 
They are common throughout the West Indies. 

Several species of Malpighia, Hiptage, Banisteria, Hete- 
ropteris, Galphimia, and others, are common in hothouses in 
the botanic gardens in this country, most of them being 
creepers, growing to a great length, with showy flowers. In 
Malpighia urens, and several other species, the leaves are 
covered with stiff shining hairs, lying horizontal on their 
surface, forming a kind of web. These hairs are very irri- 
tating and dangerous, often causing unpleasant consequences. 

The genus Nitraria is by some botanists placed in Mal- 
pighiacece, while others consider it as the type of a distinct 
family. Three species have been noticed, but they are pro- 
bably only different forms of one, N. Schoheri, a stiff, rigid, 
thorny shrub, with thick, fleshy leaves, the whole of a for- 
bidding aspect, inhabiting salt plains and desert .places in 
Siberia, around the Caspian, in Western Asia, and in some parts 
of North Africa. It has white flowers, and produces a small 
red fruit like the Barberry, which is juicy and refreshing to 
travellers in the desert. 

(VOCHYACE^.) 

This family consists of about 50 large trees and shrubs, 
with opposite branches, which when young are four-sided ; 
opposite, entire leaves, with glands at their base, and flowers 
in terminal racemes or panicles. Their timber is of use, the 
most important being Copai-ye Wood ( Vochysia Gtiianensis), 
a tree from 50 to 60 feet high, and from 2 to 2^ feet in dia- 
meter. The wood is not very durable, but is used for 
making staves for sugar-hogsheads, boat-oars, &c. 



471 



The Soap Berry Family. 

(Sapindace^.) 

Trees or shrubs, often climbing by the aid of tendrils, 
rarely herbs. Leaves alternate, variously winged, or digi- 
tate, rarely simple. Flowers solitary, or in paniculate 
racemes, unisexual or bisexual. Fruit a valved 3 -celled 
capsule, containing 1 or 2 seeds ; sometimes having a wing 
appendage, rarely fleshy, or membranous, and inflated. 

This family contains nearly 400 species, all widely distri- 
buted throughout the Tropical zone. In Northern Asia and 
America it is represented by the genus JEsculus, and in 
Australia by Dodoneaa. Some of them are of a highly 
poisonous nature, while others produce excellent dessert 
fruits in their respective countries. 

Horse Chestnut {JEsculus Hippocastanum). Supposed to 
be a native of the Himalayan range of North Western India, 
and to have gradually found its way westward to Europe ; it 
has been cultivated in this country probably for nearly two 
hundred and fifty years. Although a large-growing tree, its 
timber is soft and of little value; its large nuts, which it 
produces in great abundance, are useful in affording food for 
horses, sheep, and goats ; and in France large manufactories 
have been established for procuring starch from them. 

Soap Berry {Sajnndus Sapmaria). A tree, with winged 
leaves and winged rachis, native of the West Indies and of 
Tropical America generally. Its fruit is the size of large 
gooseberries, formed of a thick, tough skin, loosely enclosing 
a hard, globose seed. It takes the name of Soap Berry from 
the rind being saponaceous ; it has long been in general use 
in the West Indies as a substitute for soap. The hard 
seeds are used for making rosaries, necklaces, &c. ; and at 
one time were imported for making buttons. In India, an 
oil, called Soap Nut Oil, is extracted from S. emarginatus. 
S. ruhiginosa is a large tree found in the Pegu forests, where 
it attains a girth of 3 or 4 feet, having white- coloured wood. 



472 



DOMESTIC BOTANr. 



Litchi {Nephelium Litclii). A small tree, with winged, 
smooth leaves, extensively cultivated for its fruit in China, 
.where it is supposed to be a native. It has become indi- 
genous in most warm countries of the East, being common 
in India, Ceylon, and Mauritius. There are several varieties. 
The fruit is nearly of the size, and not unlike the Horse 
Chestnut, but soft and thin, of a red colour, containing a 
nut-like seed, lying in pulp. They are eaten either in a fresh 
or dried state, and are imported into this country. 

Longan (^Nephelium Longan). This is a tree like the 
last, native of Southern China. Its fruit is small, and has a 
smooth skin, of a yellowish-brown colour, is quite round, 
and of a sweet, subacid flavour. The Litchi has fruited 
freely and abundantly at Kew, and has produced fruit of a 
good flavour. 

Akee {Blighia sapida). A tree, native of Western Africa, 
from which place it has been introduced to the West Indies 
and Tropical America. In Jamaica a tree attained a con- 
siderable height, and a diameter of 2 feet. It has large, 
broad-winged leaves, somewhat rough, and a three-sided 
fruit of a reddish colour, tinged with yellow, containing 
three black seeds embedded in a whitish pulp, which is acid 
and agreeable. 

Snake Seed {Ophiocaryon paradoxum). A large tree, 
native of British Guiana, having fruit about the size of a 
walnut containing a single seed, the embryo of which is of 
dark colour, and, being coiled up, resembles a snake. It is of 
no medicinal use, but is considered a curiosity, and is to be 
seen in the Museum at Kew. 

Sneeze Wood {Ptcaroxylon utile). A small tree, native of 
the Cape of Good Hope. The wood is hard and durable, 
takes a fine polish, and is used for many purposes. It is 
called Sneeze Wood from the "dust" causing the sawyer to 
sneeze. 

Melicocca Ujuga. A tree, native of Guiana, introduced 
into the West Indies. In Jamaica it attains the height of 
from 40 to 50 feet, and is 4 or 5 feet in circumference. It 



THE SOAP BERRY FAMILY. 



473 



yields a hard and heavy timber, and produces an egg-shaped 
fruit that possesses an agreeable flavour. 

Lac (ScJileichera trijugd). A large tree, common through-' 
out India, Ceylon, and Burmah. A coccus insect frequents 
this tree, and produces what is called Stick Lac, which is 
collected from the young branches, and forms part of the 
Ceylon Lac dye of commerce. 

Alectryon excelsum. A large tree, native of New Zealand, 
having useful hard-wooded timber. 

Cupania pendula. A lofty tree, having a stem of nearly 
2 feet in diameter, native of Queensland. The wood is 
marked with mahogany-like patches ; it takes a high polish, 
and is called the Tulip Wood of that colony. 

Paullinia sorhilis. A strong-growing creeper, native of 
Brazil, chiefly in the regions of the Amazon. The ripe 
seeds are pounded, made into a paste, and then formed into 
rolls, which become dry and hard, resembling large black 
sausages. Under the name of Guarana they form a consi- 
derable article of trade, being carried into all parts of Brazil, 
where they are used for making a beverage similar to tea, 
and have been found to contain Theine, the principle of tea. 

Paullinia pinnata. A strong climber, with winged leaves 
like the preceding. The whole of the plant is poisonous. 

The curious walking-sticks called " Supple Jacks," are 
made from the slender climbing stems of Paullinia curas- 
savica. 

Serjania lethalis. Also a climber similar to the preceding, 
native of Brazil ; is supposed to be the plant from which a 
species of Wasp collects honey that is highly poisonous. The 
Indians use these poisons for their arrows, also for poison- 
ing fish. 

The only hardy representative of the family \b KoBlreuteria 
paniculata, a tree, native of China. A plant of this at Kew 
attained the height of 20 feet, with a diameter of 8 inches. 
It has spreading branches, with winged leaves, producing 
erect panicles of showy yellow flowers. 



474 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



The Maple Family, 

(ACERACE^.) 

Large or small deciduous trees. Leaves opposite, simple, 
entire, lobed or pinnate, rarely compound winged. Flowers 
from the axis of the leaves, in spikes or racemes, small, 
unisexual or bisexual. Petals 5 or none. Stamens gene- 
rally 8. Fruit consisting of 2 united-winged nuts, each 
containing a single seed. 

About 60 species constitute this family. They are com- 
mon throughout the Northern hemisphere, being represented 
in Europe by several species of Acej\- they are also found in 
India and Japan, but the greater number are natives of North 
America. None are found in the Southern hemisphere. 

Sugar Maple (Acer saccliarinum). A moderate-sized tree, 
native of North America, where it forms extensive forests. 
It is of great importance for its juice, which is obtained in 
early spring by tapping, and converted into sugar. A tree 
will yield from two to four pounds yearly, and will continue 
to do so for forty years without suffering injury. It has 
become an article of commerce under the name of Maple 
Sugar, which is made up in the form of thick cakes. The 
wood called Bird's-eye Maple, used by furniture-makers, is 
the old distorted growth of the trees. 

Acer ruhmm, A. platanoides, and others, are all useful 
timber trees, the wood being used for many purposes. A. 
Wegundo, a native of North America, is a fast-growing, wide- 
spreading tree, differing from the rest of the genus in 
having winged leaves. It is an ornamental tree in the gar- 
dens of this country. 

The Milkwort Family. 

(POLYGALACE^.) 

Shrubs or herbs, with alternate, rarely opposite leaves, 
sometimes heath-like. Flowers solitary or racemose, some- 
times very small, or, as in the Cape species of Polygala, 



THE MILKWORT FAMILY. 



475 



showy. Sepals 5, coloured. Petals 3 or 5, unequal, 2 often 
united (keel-like), 1 large and crest-fringed. Stamens 4, 
distinct, or 8, unequal, usually combined in a tube, wbich is 
either entire or split in two parts. Pistil 1. Fruit dry, 
drupaceous, or flat and winged like a samar ; 1-seeded. 

About 500 species are enumerated in this family, and are 
widely distributed over the temperate and tropical regions. 

The South African species are showy favourites in the 
greenhouse. In Australia they are represented by the pretty 
genus Comesperma, and in this country by the common 
Milkwort, Polygala vulgaris^ a neat little plant, with blue or 
white flowers. A bitter astringent principle pervades this 
family ; some are poisonous. Some species of Securidaca 
yield strong fibre. 

Rhatany {Krameria triandra). A perennial, with strong 
reddish roots, native of Peru. The roots are largely im- 
ported into Portugal, where an extract is made from them, 
and used in colouring port wine. When prescribed alone, 
it is a valuable tonic, and it is believed that the medicinal 
properties of port wine are due to it ; but it has now lost its 
reputation, and little is imported. 

Snake Root (Polygala Senega). An erect, slender, her- 
baceous plant, with lance-shaped leaves, native of North 
America, having strong, thick, branching roots, covered with 
ash-coloured bark, and supposed to resemble the tail of the 
rattlesnake, as a remedy for the bite of which it has been 
long famed among the Indians. It is employed medicinally 
for many complaints in the United States. A principle 
called Senegin has been found in this plant ; it is a brown 
substance, and excites violent sneezing. 

THE CAMELLIA, GAMBOGE, AND TUTSAN 
ALLIANCE. 

(DlPTEROCARPE^.) 

Generally large trees. Leaves alternate, with parallel 
veins running from the midrib to the margin, and deciduous 



476 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



stipules. Flowers large, axillary, and solitary, or in racemes. 
Calyx tubular. Petals and stamens 5 each, the latter dis- 
tinct or united in bundles. Fruit leathery, 3-valved, contain- 
ing a winged seed. 

This family consists of about 50 species, natives of India, 
Java, and the Malayan Islands, where they form the largest 
trees of the forest. They contain a resinous secretion. 

Sumatra Camphor (Dryohalanops Camphora). A native of 
Sumatra and Borneo, the juice of which becomes crystallized 
in fissures in the interior, and to obtain it the tree has to be 
cut down ; the quantity yielded by each tree is often not more 
than a few ounces, and on that account it is very high-priced. 
It is less volatile than the Chinese Camphor, but is more 
valued by the Chinese and Japanese. In Sumatra it is used 
for embalming the bodies of deceased rajahs, and the large 
quantity required for this purpose helps to keep up the 
price. 

Gum Animi, Indian Copal ( Vateiia Indica and V. Mala- 
barica). Tall, smooth-barked trees, natives of Ceylon and 
Malabar. They yield a gum resin, which is used in this 
country as a varnish, and in India is made into candles that 
have a fragrant smell when burning ; it is also burnt for 
incense. 

Sal Wood {Shorea rohusta). A native of India, stretching 
from the Bengal provinces to the foot of the Himalayas. It 
attains the height of 100 feet. The wood is hard and tough, 
and is used for shipbuilding and other purposes where strength 
and toughness are required. It yields a resin known as 
Dammar (a common name for gum resins throughout India 
and the Malayan Islands), and an oil is obtained from its 
seeds. 

Wood Oil. This is obtained from several species of 
Dipterocarpus. 

D. turhinatus. A large tree, native of Chittagong, attain- 
ing the height of 200 feet, with a girth of 10 feet. It yields 
a large quantity of oil, which is obtained by cutting large 
holes in the tree, when fire is applied, which causes the oil to 



THE TEA TREE FAMILY. 



477 



run out. In India it is used for many purposes, as pitch, 
varnish, &c. ; and medicinally as a substitute for Copaiba 
Balsam ; it is imported from Moulmein as such. The 
timber is used for boatbuilding. 

In Borneo it is said there are several species of Diptero- 
carpus^ that produce a nut from which is expressed a fatty 
oil, extensively used as vegetable tallow or wax. 

The Tea Tree Family. 

(Ternstromiace^.) 

Small trees and shrubs, some climbers. Leaves alternate, 
simple, entire, or toothed, sometimes with pellucid dots. 
Flowers axillary or terminal, generally solitary or nearly so, 
red or white. Petals 5 or more, united at their base. Sta- 
mens numerous, distinct, or united in one or several parcels. 
Fruit a capsule containing large seeds. Of the 130 species 
that constitute this family, fully one-half are natives of South 
America, the rest being distributed throughout India, China, 
and North America. 

Tea tree (Thea Boliea and T. viridis). Names applied to 
the black and green tea-plants, but now understood by 
botanists to be varieties of one species. 

T. chinensis, a small much-branched tree or shrub, not 
exceeding 10 or 15 feet in height, having elliptical, lance- 
shaped leaves 2 or 3 inches in length. It is extensively 
cultivated throughout China and Japan ; and, like many 
other plants long cultivated by man, its native country is 
uncertain ; it is, however, undoubtedly found wild in Assam, 
and is supposed, in progress of time, to have migrated east- 
ward to China. An infusion of the leaves has, from time 
immemorial, been used by the Chinese as a beverage for its 
exhilarating properties. 

It was supposed that black and green teas were the produce 
respectively of the two varieties of the plant, but it is now 
known that both kinds are made indiscriminately from either, 
the difference depending on the age of the leaf when gathered, 



478 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



and the mode of preparing and drying. Originally, pure green 
tea was considered the finest, and brought the highest price ; 
the demand led to its being artificially coloured, even 
almost to shiny blue, as may be sometimes seen in 
grocers' windows. This is chiefly done to meet the English 
taste, the Chinese tea-dryer saying he would as readily make 
yellow or red tea, if these colours would fetch a higher 
price. The substances used for the processes of colouring 
are to be seen in the Museum at Kew, and may be considered 
quite genuine, as they were obtained during the time the 
process was being performed. Tea now forms one of the 
greatest articles of commerce in the civilized world; and 
although as an article of food it could be dispensed with, yet 
it has become such a universal beverage, that to be deprived 
of it would be felt as a great loss. It was introduced into 
Europe by the Dutch two hundred years ago, but does not 
appear to have been used in England until one hundred 
years later, and was rare at the end of the eighteenth 
century ; indeed, it may be said that it is only during the 
present century that it has come into general use with rich 
and poor. For the Northern Asia and Kussian markets tea 
is made up into solid hard lumps like bricks, and is boiled 
and eaten as a vegetable. In Assam, the native tea-plant 
has been cultivated for more than twenty years ; and more 
recently, the Chinese varieties have been introduced into 
India, and extensive plantations formed in the cooler regions. 
Large quantities have been manufactured, but as yet it is 
wholly consumed in that country. The virtues of tea are 
due to a principle called " Theine," which is also contained 
in Paraguay tea and coffee. 

Camellia {Camellia Japonicd). This beautiful and well- 
known shrub is a native of China and Japan, and is recorded 
as being introduced into this country some time previous to 
1740. The normal character of the flower is single red, but 
the double, of both red and white, as well as a variety called 
Waratah, have been long cultivated at Kew. During the 
last fifty years many fine new varieties have been raised, 



THE SOUARI-NUT FAMILY. 



479 



and Camellias have become one of the most important trade- 
plants, both in this country and on the Continent. 

Camellia Sasanqua. A. small-leaved species growing in 
the form of a bush. It attains the height of from 12 to 15 
feet, and bears a profusion of w^hite flowers. It is often 
planted as a shelter for tea-plants, and its leaves are fre- 
quently mixed with tea. The Chinese have an idea" that the 
flowers scent the tea-leaves, and therefore collect the latter 
while the Sasanqua is in flower. The seeds of this and of 
Camellias in general contain a great quantity of oil, which is 
much used for domestic purposes in China. 

Visnea Mocanera. A shrub, native of the Canaries, having 
small shining elliptical leaves and white flowers, like the tea- 
plant. Linnseus gave it the name of Mocanera, on the sup- 
j)Osition that its fruit was the Mocan, used as food as well as 
in medicine by the ancient extinct race of the Guanches, the 
original natives of the Canaries. Plants of it were intro- 
duced at Kew about 1815, and are kept in the green- 
house. 

Stuartia pentagyna, S. Malachodendron, and Gordmia 
lasianthus, represent the family in North America. They 
are deciduous shrubs, having large white showy flowers, and 
are hardy but rare in this country. 

The Souari-Nut Family. 

(RlIIZOBOLACE^.) 

Large trees, with alternate or opposite thick trifoliate 
leaves, jointed at the foot-stalks. Flowers large, with jointed 
peduncle. Petals 5 or more. Stamens numerous, mona- 
delphous, in 2 rows. Fruit consisting of one or more united 
nuts. 

About 10 species of large trees, natives of various parts 
of tropical America, constitute this family. 

Souari or Pekea Nut {Garyocar nucifera), A native 
of British Guiana and Brazil, often attaining the height of 
100 feet. The fruit is globose, and when perfect contains 



480 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



5 large, hard-shelled, flat nuts (seeds), which when dry are 
brown and warty. They are frequently imported to this 
country, and contain a nutty kernel, which is eaten, and from 
which an oil is expressed. 

C. huti/rosum, the Butter Nut, is a tree similar to the 
last, also producing eatable nuts, but they are too oily to be 
much in favour. 

The Gamboge Family. 

(GUTTIFER^.) 

Trees or shrubs, sometimes adhering by their roots to 
other trees {Clusia). Leaves opposite, often thick, entire, 
with parallel veins running from the midrib to the margin. 
Flowers usually several together on short footstalks, axillary 
or terminal. Petals variable in number, generally of a firm 
texture. Stamens numerous, distinct or united in one or 
more parcels. Stigma often sessile, rayed. Fruit dry, 1- or 
many-celled, with the seeds embedded in the pulp. 

This handsome family is represented by 150 or more 
species, widely spread throughout the tropics. The whole 
contain a resinous yellow juice, and some are of high im- 
portance for their fruits. 

Gamboge {Garcinia Morella). A small tree, common in 
Siam and Cambodia. The fruit is a pulpy drupe, about 
2 inches in diameter, of a yellow colour, and is esteemed as a 
dessert fruit. The most important product, however, is the 
gum which exudes on incisions being made in the stems, and 
when hardened, is collected and made into cakes, forming 
the gamboge of commerce ; the best comes from Siam and 
Cambodia, and is believed to be obtained from a variety 
of the above species. 

Mangosteen {Garcinia Mangostana). A native of Molucca, 
and other spice islands, and has become indigenous in Java, 
Singapore, and other parts of the East. It is a tree about 
20 feet high, with opposite horizontal branches, and firm, 
smooth, elliptical leaves. The fruit is about the size of a 
small apple, of a yellowish-brown colour, crowned with the 



THE GAMBOGE FAMILY. 



481 



persistent rays of the stigma. It is considered one of the 
most delicious fruits known, being peculiarly grateful and 
refreshingly cool to the taste. 

Xanthochymus pictorius. A native of many parts of India, 
similar in growth to the Mangosteen, but has longer, firm 
leaves and an oblong fruit ; it is nearly as much esteemed. 
In this country it grows and fruits more freely than the 
Mangosteen. X. ovalifolius is similar but has blunter leaves ; 
it is a native of Ceylon. Both these yield gamboge, but of 
inferior quality. 

Hog Gum {Moronobea coccinea). A lofty tree, native of 
the West Indies and many parts of tropical America, By 
incisions it yields a gum of the consistency of Burgundy 
pitch, obtained in considerable quantities. In Jamaica it is 
known as Hog Gum, it is said from Hogs rubbing themselves 
against it as it issues from the trees. 

Butter and Tallow Tree {Pentadesma hutyracea). A tree, 
native of Sierra Leone, and other parts of Western tropical 
Africa. It attains the height of 30 or 40 feet, and bears an 
inversely pear-shaped fruit of a dark brown colour containing 
a yellow greasy juice, which is used by the natives mixed 
with their food, but its strong turpentine flavour is not 
palatable to Europeans. It is sold as butter in the markets 
of Freetown, but it must not be confounded with Shea butter. 

Mammee Apple {Mammea americana). A native of the 
West Indies and of tropical America. It attains the height 
of 60 or 70 feet, and has broad, smooth, firm, ovate leaves, 
and fruit of an angular form, the size of a small melon, with 
a tough skin enclosing another thin yellow skin, firmly 
adhering to the flesh, which is also of a yellow colour and 
has a pleasant taste. It is a common table fruit, and is 
made into a preserve. The bark is a powerful astringent, 
and even poisonous. 

Calophyllwn inophyllum. A native of India and of the 
Malay and other islands. It attains the height of from 80 to 
100 feet. The trunk yields a resin, and an essential oil is 
obtained from the seeds. It is a handsome tree and is often 

I I 



482 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



planted near dwellings for the shade it affords. C. calaha is 
a similar tree, but with longer leaves, native of the West 
Indies and tropical America, where its wood is known as 
Santa Maria Wood. It is said to be suitable for ship- 
building, and a quantity was sent to this country some years 
ago for that purpose, but was not much appreciated. The 
seeds yield an oil. 

Clusia alba and C. rosea, natives of the West Indies 
and tropical America are small much-branching trees of a 
shrubby character, with thick leathery leaves. They pro- 
duce thick aerial roots with which they cling to other trees, 
or descend to, and become fixed in, the ground, similar to 
the Banyan tree. 

The West Indian Ivy Family. 

(Marcgraviace^.) 

Trees or shrubs, often clinging climbers. Leaves alter- 
nate, entire, often thick and shining. Flowers in umbels, 
spikes, or racemes, furnished with bracts, which are some- 
times hooded or bag-shaped. Petals 5, imbricated, or 
hooded. Stamens generally numerous. Fruit succulent or 
capsular. Seeds numerous. 

About 30 species are enumerated of this family. They 
are natives of the West Indies and tropical America, where 
they climb over trees like ivy. The curious structure of 
their flowers invests them with botanical interest. They 
are represented in the hothouses of this country by Norantea 
coccinea and Marcgravia umhellata. 

The Tutsan Family. 

(Htpericace^.) 

Herbs, shrubs, or frutlets. Stems generally angular. 
Leaves opposite, rarely alternate, entire, often with pellucid 
dots, some heath-like. Flowers solitary or somewhat um- 
bellate or panicled. Petals 4 or 5 , unequal sided and twisted 
in the bud, bordered with black dots. Stamens numerous, 
distinct or united in 1 or more parcels. Pistils 3-5. Fruit 



THE LINDEN TREE FAMILY. 



483 



generally a many-celled, dry capsule or berry with numerous 
seeds. This family is represented by nearly 300 species, 
widely distributed over the temperate and tropical regions. 
The genus Hypericum or St. John's wort is the most nu- 
merous in species, the most showy being H. Androscemum, 
Tutsan or Park Leaves, a native of this country. It is a 
low shrub, having smooth, glossy leaves and yellow flowers. 

About 11 species oi Hypericum are natives of this country. 
The largest representatives of the family are Ancistrolohus 
curnecL and^. mollis^ natives of the forests of Pegu ; they are 
tall growing trees, but seldom exceed 3 feet in girth ; they 
have dark brown wood. 

Vismia Guianensis, a small tree, native of Guiana, yields 
a resin called American G-amboge. The genus Carpodontos 
also consists of large trees, G. lucida being a beautiful 
flowering tree, native of Mount Wellington, Tasmania. It 
has been introduced into this country. The genus Reaumuria 
is by some botanists made the type of a distinct family. It 
consists of only 4 known species, differing from Hypericum 
in the calyx being bell-shaped, and furnished with bracts. 
They are small branched trailing or bushy shrubs with soft, 
thick, fleshy, flat or heath-like leaves, of a bluish hue, and 
are natives of the salt plains of Western Asia and North 
Africa. They contain saline matter. Reaumuria hypericoides, 
native of Syria, is a small heath-like trailing shrub, with 
pretty pink flowers ; it has long been cultivated at Kew. 

THE MALLOW AND LINDEN TEEE ALLIANCE. 
The Linden Tree Family. 

(TlLIACE^.) 

Trees or soft wooded shrubs, rarely herbs. Leaves simple, 
alternate, often heart-shaped, with stipules. Flowers solitary 
or many together on leafy bracts. Sepals and petals 4 or 5 
each. Stamens numerous, part in some sterile. Fruit a 
5 or 10-valved capsule, sometimes winged, often prickly or 

I I 2 



484 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



succulent. Of this family about 350 species are enume- 
rated, which are widely distributed throughout the tem- 
perate and tropical regions, and consist either of lofty hard 
wooded trees with tough fibrous bark, or of mean weeds. 

Lime or Linden Tree {Tilia europea). This is found wild 
throughout the whole of Europe and parts of Asia. It is a 
bushy-headed tree, averaging, but often much exceeding, 40 
or 50 feet in height. The wood is light and white, and is 
much esteemed by carvers, musical instrument makers, and 
others. The fibre of its bark is also extensively used for 
making garden mats, which are imported into this country 
from Eussia in vast quantities. When in flower the Lime 
trees are odoriferous, and much frequented by bees. Two 
species, natives of North America, and the beautiful T. alba^ 
a native of the east of Europe, are grown in this country. 

Jute (^Cordionis capsularis). A weedy plant, found wild 
throughout India and other parts, and extensively cultivated 
for its fibre. It is an annual, and under cultivation has a 
slender stem, attaining the height of 8 or 10 feet, having 
simple jagged leaves, and small yellow flowers. It is exten- 
sively iised in the East for making what are called Gunny 
bags, for the export of sugar, coffee, rice, &c., and vast 
quantities of it are conveyed to America as well as to this 
country, where it enters largely into the manufacture of 
carpets and other goods, even of the finest quality. The 
fibre being liable to spontaneous combustion, it has been the 
cause of disastrous fires, both in ships and warehouses. 

Jews Mallow (Corclm^us olitorius). This is a species 
similar to the last, and widely distributed over the same 
regions. Its fibre is used as jute ; it is cultivated in many 
parts, especially Egypt and Syria, for its young shoots which 
are eaten as a vegetable, and as it is used by the Jews, the 
name Jews Mallow has been given to it. 

One of the largest Indian trees of this family is Brownlowia 
elafa, growing to a great height in the Chittagong and Pegu 
forests, and sometimes attaining a diameter of 5 feet. It has 
entire cordate leaves like the lime, but larger and firmer in 



THE CHOCOLATE NUT FAMILY. 



485 



texture. Another tree of India is Elceocarpus Ganitrus^ the 
hard nuts or fruit stones of which are used for making 
rosaries, buttons, bracelets, necklaces, and other similar 
articles; specimens may be seen in the museum at Kew. 

The genus Sloanea consists of large trees, natives of tro- 
pical America and the West Indies. S. Jamaicensis (dentatd) 
has very hard wood, and is known in Jamaica by the name of 
Break-axe. 

The genus Grewia consists of bushy shrubs or small trees 
with pretty little pink flowers, natives of India and the 
Asiatic Islands. They have tough bark, which is used for 
many purposes. The wood of 0. occidentalism native of the 
Cape of Good Hope, is elastic, and is used for many purposes 
where elasticity is required. It has been long cultivated at 
Kew. 

The genus Triumfetta consists of many species, widely 
dispersed throughout the trojoical regions. They are either 
soft-stemmed herbs or fruticuls, having broad leaves with 
stellated pubescence and small yellow flowers. In their 
habit of growth and in their fibre they resemble the Jute. 

The Chocolate Nut Family. 

(Byttneriace^,) 

Soft-wooded trees or shrubs, with alternate entire leaves, 
smooth, or covered with star-like hairs. Flowers in clusters, 
on short stalks, produced on the stems or branches, or in 
terminal spiked panicles or umbels. Petals 4, 5, or none, 
variable in form. Stamens 5, 10, or more, one half of which 
are sometimes sterile, free or united. Fruit a short or long, 
generally 5-celled, many-seeded, indehiscent capsule. 

About 400 species constitute this family. They are plants 
of tropical and temperate climates, being represented in 
Australia and South Africa by shrubs, while the magnificent 
Dombeyece and Astrapece are natives of Mauritius and Mada- 
gascar, and Theohroma of America. They contain a mucila- 
ginous principle. 



486 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Chocolate {Theohroma Cacao). A small tree, native of 
tropical America, where it is widely distributed and culti- 
vated. It grows from 16 to 18 feet high, and has large 
oblong-pointed leaves of a thin, paper-like texture, very 
tender when young. The flowers are small, and produced 
on the old stem and branches, and in time are followed by a 
pod-like fruit 6 to 10 inches in length, and 3 to 5 in girth, 
marked with longitudinal ribs, and containing 50 or more 
seeds. These when ripe are taken from the pod and allowed 
to undergo a slight fermentation, after which they are dried 
in the sun, when they acquire a brown colour and become 
the Chocolate Bean or Nut of commerce. Millions of pounds 
are annually brought to Europe, the chief supply coming 
from Trinidad and Granada. In order to give them a fic- 
titious higher value they are sprinkled with water and dusted 
with red earth, being frequently turned while drying. 
This accounts for the supposed discovery that chocolate was 
purposely adulterated Mdth red earth. 

In process of manufacture the two cotyledons separate, and 
form what are called cocoa- nibs. These when ground and 
formed into cakes, flavoured with vanilla and other sub- 
stances, constitute the different kinds of chocolate sold in 
shops. The highly praised virtues of Cacao led to its being 
called Theobroma, meaning food of the gods. 

St. Helena Ebony {Dombeya melanoxylon) . This is one of 
the special plants, found only in the small island of St. 
Helena, and is now nearly, if not entirely, extinct, the trees 
having been used for firewood. The largest one standing 
some years ago was from 10 to 15 feet high, with crooked 
stems about the thickness of a man's thigh, having numerous 
spreading branches, and small, more or less heart-shaped 
tomentose leaves. In old trunks the wood is hard and 
black, and is called ebony. A second species, D. ery- 
throxylon, Eed Wood, has been described, but it is now be- 
lieved to be only a younger state of the above, and is not 
now found in the Island. 

Astrapma Wallichii, A. viscosa, Dombeya mollis, D. vi- 



THE SILK COTTON FAMILY. 



487 



hurnifolia, D. amelia, and D. opalifolia, splendid flowering 
trees, natives of Mauritius and Madagascar, have been grown 
and flowered in the Palm House at Kew, some having attained 
the height of 20 feet, being conspicuous for their large 
leaves and heads of flowers. The Australian section of the 
family is represented in the greenhouse by species of the 
genus Lasiopetalum, and the South African section by species 
of Hermannia and Mahernia. 

The Silk Cotton Family. 

(BOMBACEiE.) 

Magnificent trees or shrubs. Leaves alternate, entire, 
lobed or digitate, with deciduous stipules. Flowers terminal 
or sessile on the stem and branches, small or very large and 
showy, some unisexual. Sepals 5, more or less united. 
Petals 5, or none. Stamens numerous, united, forming a 
longer or shorter tube. Fruit capsular, with the seeds in - 
volved in silky, wool-like hairs, or a follicle with numerous 
seeds, or indehiscent and gourd-like, with the seeds imbedded 
in pulp. 

About 130 species are enumerated of this remarkable 
order of gouty trees, which are principally natives of 
tropical climates. 

Baobob or Monkey Bread, also called Sour Gourd {Adan- 
sonia digitata). A native of Tropical Africa, extending 
from east to west. It is a remarkable tree, growing to the 
height of 40 feet, but its girth is entirely out of proportion 
to its height, some trees being 30 feet in diameter, becoming 
contracted towards the top. Humboldt speaks of it as the 
" oldest organic monument of our planet," and Adanson, a 
botanical traveller, in 1794 made a calculation that one of 
these trees, 30 feet in diameter, must have been at least 
5150 years old. The wood is soft and the negroes cut out 
chambers in the trees, which they use as places of inter- 
ment. It produces a large oblong, woody, indehiscent, 
capsular fruit, from 8 to 12 inches or more long, shaped like 



488 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



a gourd, covered with velvety down, and containing nume- 
rous seeds the size of large peas, imbedded in pulp which 
ultimately becomes dry and of a corky nature. It forms a 
great part of the food of the natives, and was the chief sup- 
port to Major Pedley's expedition, for 10 or 12 days, when in 
search of Mungo Park. Excellent ropes are made of the 
bark. As an example of the slow growth of this plant, one at 
Kew, though more than eighty years of age, was only 4| feet 
high, but with the characteristic swollen gouty base 6 to 7 
inches in diameter. 

Adansonia Gi^egorii. A native of North Australia, and 
first observed by Allan Cunningham during Captain King's 
voyage of survey in 1818, who called it the gouty tree, on 
account of its remarkable obesity. When seen at a distance 
it has the appearance of an oblong pear set on end. Since 
that time they have been seen and described, and drawings 
made of them, by several travellers. They grow either 
singly, or several apparently from the same root, the largest 
one measured being 85 feet in girth and not exceeding 25 to 
30 feet high. The leaves and fruit are produced from a 
small tree-like stem, growing out of the top. The wood is 
exceedingly soft and full of moisture, which it readily yields 
on pressure, affording a grateful beverage to travellers in the 
arid places where they grow. The fruit is smaller than that 
of the preceding. 

Bottle Tree of Australia (Delabechea rupestns). A tree, 
native of North-eastern Australia. It is allied to the pre- 
ceding, but more erect, and not so large, sometimes bulged 
out in the middle, having the appearance of a barrel or 
bottle, with what would appear to be a small tree growing 
out at the top, answering to the neck of the bottle. Its 
stem is very open, soft and porous, and contains a mucilagi- 
nous gum. It has narrow digitate leaves. Plants of it, with 
the gouty foot, may be seen at Kew. 

Hand Flower Tree {Cheirostemon platanoides). A native 
of Guatemala, but first known by a single tree of great age 
growing near the city of Mexico. It is a large soft-wooded 



THE SILK COTTON FAMILY. 



489 



tree with heart-shaped, lobed leaves, and is remarkable for 
the stamens being red, and so united and turned to one side 
of the flower, that they bear some resemblance to an infant's 
hand. 

Silk Cotton. This is the produce of several species of 
Bomhax^ which are large trees in tropical America. The 
fruit is a valvular capsule compactly filled with a beautiful 
silky fibre, which is very elastic, expanding greatly on the 
opening of the pod, but, as it cannot be woven, is only used 
for stuffing cushions. 

Ceiba {Bomhax Ceiha). Another silk cotton tree, native of 
the West Indies, attaining a great height. Its stem is 
covered with rough tuberculated prickles, and is remarkable 
for having thick projecting buttresses of such size that in 
Jamaica horses have been stalled between them. 

Bomhax Malaharicum. A tree similar to the preceding ; 
the silk cotton tree of India. 

Cork Wood of Jamaica {0 chroma Lagopus). A tree 40 
feet high, common on the sea shores of the West Indies and 
Central America. The wood is soft, easily compressed and 
used in Jamaica as a substitute for cork. 

Durian (Durio Zihethinus). A large tree, with simple 
oblong leaves, native of the Malayan Archipelago. It bears 
a large capsular fruit 8 to 10 inches in length, covered with 
hard prickles, containing seed enveloped in a luscious pulp, 
delicious to eat, but of a very foetid odour, repugnant to 
Europeans. It is nevertheless considered one of the finest 
tropical fruits. 

Cola (StercuUa) acuminata. A tree, native of Western 
tropical Africa. It attains the height of 30 or 40 feet, having 
smooth, entire, oblong elliptical leaves 6 to 8 inches in length. 
The fruit is a follicle containing several nut-like seeds, which 
are called Cola or goora-nuts. They form a considerable 
article of trade amongst the negroes, by whom they are held 
in high estimation. The tree is also common in the West 
Indies and Brazil, having originally been introduced by the 
slaves from Africa. 



490 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Sterculia foetida, S. urens, S. colorata, S. canipanulata, and 
others, are common trees in India, useful chiefly for their 
fibrous bark, which is converted into strong ropes, sacks, and 
clothing. 

Sterculia acerifolia. A tree, native of New South Wales, 
attaining the height of 60 or 100 feet, and a circumference 
of from 6 to 8 feet, having smooth, large, lobed leaves, and 
racemes of showy red flowers, which are produced before the 
expansion of the leaves, and are so numerous as to give to 
the tree when seen at a distance the appearance of a flame of 
fire, whence the name Flame tree (see Flame tree, page 337). 

Plagiantlms hetulinus. A tree, native of New Zealand, at- 
taining the height of 60 or 70 feet, but more often seen as 
only a bush. Its fibre is fine and white, like flax, very 
tough, and is used by the natives for making cords, ropes, 
and the like. A plant grown at Kew had a stem 3 inches 
in diameter, which on being cut down exhibited fine layers 
of white fibre similar to the lace bark of Jamaica. 

Matisia cordata. A tree upwards of 30 feet in height, 
native of New Granada. It has large heart-shaped leaves, 
and firm fruit of an oval form, 5 inches in length and 3 
broad, covered with a silky ash-coloured down, and fleshy in 
the interior. In taste it is by some compared to an apricot, 
while others think it more like the mango. It is sold in 
the markets of New Granada and Peru. It has been intro- 
duced at Kew, and specimens of the fruit are to be seen in 
the museum. 

The Mallow Family. 

(Malvace^.) 

Small soft-wooded trees, shrubs, or herbs, with alternate, 
entire, lobed, palmate, or otherways divided leaves furnished 
with stipules, the whole plant often covered with stellate 
hairs. Flowers usually axillary or in spikes, showy, often 
with double calyx or involucrum. Sepals 3 to 5 or more. 
Petals 5, twisted in the bud. Stamens numerous, united, 
forming a tube. Pistils 1 to 3 or more, with rayed stigmas. 



THE MALLOW FAMILY. 



491 



Fruit a capsule, pulpy or dry, with the seeds involved in 
wool-like hairs. 

Not less than 1000 species constitute this family, being 
widely distributed over the temperate and tropical regions 
of both hemispheres. Many are of weedy nature, but gene- 
rally have pretty flowers. They abound in mucilage, and 
are not known to contain any poisonous qualities. 

Cotton {Gossypium herhaceum). Next to food plants the 
cotton plant may be considered first in importance to man. 
Cloth woven from the hairs of its seeds has been a universal 
article of clothing to all civilized and semi-civilized people 
from time immemorial. It is recorded as having been in 
use in India and Egypt many centuries before the Christian 
era. Herodotus speaks of the Indians having a plant pro- 
ducing wool like that of sheep, and according to Pliny it was 
early cultivated in the South of Europe. On the discovery 
of America it was found to be known there, the remains of 
cotton cloth having been discovered in the tombs of the 
Incas, thus proving it to be of ancient date. The weaving 
of cotton cloth in this country is said to have commenced 
about the end of the sixteenth century, but it was not until 
cotton became extensively cultivated in the then British 
colonies of North America that its manufacture attained im- 
portance. About the middle of the last century it received 
a great impetus by the invention of cotton spinning ma- 
chinery. Eaw cotton now became the chief article of import 
trade to this country, and the manufactured goods the chief 
article of export, being sent to all nations of the earth. 

There are several varieties of the cotton plant, which as- 
sumes different characters under cultivation. It is generally 
treated as an annual, but if left alone, under favourable cir- 
cumstances, it becomes a branched shrub 6 or 8 feet high. The 
flowers are very showy, being yellow, pink, or red, followed 
by a 3 or 5 -celled capsule, about the size and shape of a fig, 
which when ripe bursts open through the middle of each cell, 
presenting a mass of fine white filaments, to which the seeds 
are attached. These white filaments constitute the cotton 



492 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



imported in bales to this country. Since the Civil War in 
the United States the cultivation of cotton has increased in 
many other countries, and a considerable suj)ply now comes 
to this country from India and Egypt. The seeds contain a 
large quantity of oil, and are used for making oil -cake for 
feeding cattle, but it is necessary to deprive them of their 
outer covering, otherwise the cake is unwholesome. 

Marshmallow {Althea officinalis). A strong growing pe- 
rennial, native of this country. It attains the height of 
about 3 feet, and is of a hoary aspect. It is cultivated in 
certain districts, and is held in repute as a medicinal plant, 
being used chiefly in fomentations and gargles; the juice of 
the root is used in the preparation of cough lozenges. 

Hollyhock (^Althea 7vsea). This well-known showy garden 
plant is a native of China, but has been cultivated in this 
country for more than three hundred years ; it has now be- 
come indigenous in the South of Europe. Many fine double 
varieties have been raised. It possesses a strong fibre, and 
attempts have been made to introduce it in the manufacture 
of paper, &c., but they have not been attended Avith much 
success. A colouring matter is obtained from it. 

Cuba Bast (Paritium elatum). A tree, native of Cuba and 
Jamaica, attaining the height of from 50 to 60 feet, having 
large cordate, smooth, green leaves. Its timber is of a green- 
ish colour, and is used in Jamaica in cabinet making; but 
the most important part is its beautiful lace-like inner bark, 
which was originally employed for tying up parcels of the 
real Havannah cigars. About fifteen years ago it was largely 
imported into this country for garden purposes, but it has 
now fallen into disuse. Other species of Paritium have tough 
bark, especially P. tiliaceum, a native of tropical coasts and 
abounding throughout the islands of the Pacific, where its 
bark is largely employed by the natives for making ropes 
and nets, and its light wood for canoes. 

Thespesia populnea is also a common tree on tropical coasts 
of both hemispheres, and its bark is used for similar pur- 
poses as the above. In Demerara it is used for making 



THE INDIAN CRESS FAMILY. 



493 



coffee bags. Its wood is hard and indestructible under water. 
Its pretty yellow flowers with purple centre make it a favou- 
rite in hothouses. 

Sida rhomboidea and S. rhombifolia^ natives of India, S. 
tilicEfolia of China, and 8. retusa of Queensland, are weedy 
plants with slender stems, attaining the height of 3 or 4 feet, 
having fibre equal to jute or hemp, but they are not so exten- 
sively cultivated. 

Blacking-plant (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis). A shrub or small 
tree, native of China. It is a showy plant in hothouses, 
having red or yellow flowers, which when bruised yield a 
black juice, used in China for colouring the eyebrows and for 
blacking shoes. 

Syrian Rose {Hibiscus syriacus). A stifl'-branched deci- 
duous shrub attaining the height of from 4 to 6 feet, native 
of Syria, introduced into England at the end of the sixteenth 
century. It is the only shrub of the family hardy in this 
country, and is well known in gardens by its pretty pink 
flowers in autumn. The mucilaginous seed-vessels of 
Hibiscus esculentus are in the West Indies known by the 
name of " Ochro Pods," and are used for thickening soups. 

The family is represented in this country by the Marsh 
Mallow, already noticed ; by three species of Malva, and the 
Tree Mallow {Lavatera arborea), a plant native of some parts 
of the south coasts of England and the Bass Eock in the 
Firth of Forth. In its wild state it has a stem about the size 
of a walking-stick, rising to the height of 3 or 4 feet, and 
quite hard, but when cultivated it grows to the height of 
6 or 8 feet. 

THE TROPJEOLUM AND GERANIUM ALLIANCE. 
The Indian Cress Family. 

(TROPiEOLACE^.) 

Herbs, annual or perennial, some with tuberous roots, and 
trailing or climbing, succulent or wiry slender stems. Leaves 
alternate, generally round, lobed, or more or less divided. 



494 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Flowers solitary, rising from the axes of the leaves. Sepals 
3 to 5, equal, or one in the form of a spur. Petals 3 to 5, 
equal or unequal, entire or fringed. Stamens 6 to 8 or 10. 
Fruit consisting of three loosely united nuts, each containing 
one seed. 

This family consists of about 50 species, exclusively natives 
of North and South America. 

Indian Cress, commonly called Nasturtium (^TropcBolum 
minus and T. majus)^ natives of Peru, are well known garden 
plants, of which there are many varieties. The fruit forms a 
common pickle. 

Canary-bird Flower (Tropceolum peregrinum). A favourite 
arbour plant with cottagers, native of New Granada. T. 
Lobbi, a native of Peru, a species with round shield-like 
leaves, is a showy green-house creeper, of which there are 
several varieties. T. tuherosumj also a native of Peru, has 
tuberous roots like small potatoes, for which it was once sup- 
posed they would become a substitute, but their taste is not 
pleasant. In Bolivia, however, they are said to be made 
agreeable by some process of cooking. 

The Balsam Family. 

(B ALSAMINACE^ . ) 

Succulent stemmed annuals, erect or trailing. Leaves 
alternate, simple. Flowers solitary, generally axillary. 
Sepals and petals 5 each, unequal, one of the latter forming 
a hollow or projecting cucullate spur. Stamens 5. Fruit a 
5-valved roundish or long capsule, with numerous seeds, 
bursting when ripe with elastic force. 

Above 100 species constitute this family, all, with few ex- 
ceptions, belonging to the genus Impatiens^ principally natives 
of Ceylon and India, growing in cool moist situations. /. Noli- 
me-tangere, Touch-me-not, is a native of this country, found 
on the banks of the Thames. They are ornamental garden 
plants, some being hardy enough to flower in the open air, 
while I. latifolia and /. Hookeri assume a shrubby character 



THE OXALIS FAMILY. 



495 



in the hothouse. The Garden Balsam, /. Balsamina, native 
of the East Indies, has been cultivated for more than 250 
years, and many fine varieties have been raised with double 
flowers. 

The Oxalis Family. 

(OxALIDACEiE.) 

Trees, small shrubs, soft frutlets, or herbs, often tuberous 
rooted. Leaves alternate, simple, trifoliate, or more com- 
pound. Flowers generally solitary, on long footstalks, usually 
of showy colours. Sepals 5. Petals 5, equal, spirally twisted 
before opening. Stamens 10, free or united. Pistils 3 or 5. 
Fruit a valved capsule, which is either membranous or suc- 
culent. 

About 350 species compose this family, the principal part 
belonging to the genus Oxalis, and abounding as bulbous- 
rooted plants in South Africa. In Tropical America they 
are small shrubs, and in India they are represented by small 
trees. They contain an acid principle, called oxalic acid. 

Blimbing(u4. verrAoa 5z7m&/)andCarambola(J.. Caramhola). 
Small trees, seldom attaining the height of 20 feet, having 
winged leaves. They are natives of India, and are cultivated in 
tropical countries for their fruit, that of the first being oblong 
and pulpy, about the size of the thumb, like a small cucum- 
ber, of a yellowish colour. The fruit of the latter is about 
the size of a hen's egg, and three angled, having soft flesh 
like a plum, exceedingly juicy and refreshing. Both are 
made into pickles, and the flowers into conserves. 

Arracacha {Oxalis crenata). A native of Peru, New Gra- 
nada, and other parts of Tropical America, where it is culti- 
vated for its tuberous roots, which are about the size of a 
hen's egg, the skin being full of eyes, like a potato. It was 
introduced into this country about thirty years ago, when it 
was supposed that it would become a useful garden vegetable, 
but it Avas found to be watery and insipid. 

0. Deppei. A native of Mexico, also having tuberous 
roots, which are a little more farinaceous than the preceding. 



496 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



It is not mucla cultivated in this country, but more so in 
France, the stalk and leaves being cooked in various ways, 
and also used as salad. 

Wood Sorrel (Oxalis Acetoselld). A hardy perennial, native 
of Britain, growing wild in woods. The leaves are some- 
times used in salads, to which they impart a pleasant acid. 
Having trifoliate leaves it is one of the plants supposed to be 
the shamrock of Ireland. 

0. Bowei and other species, natives of the Cape of G-ood 
Hope, are showy garden plants, but not sufficiently hardy to 
stand the winters of this country without protection. 0. bu- 
pleurifolia^ a small erect shrub with yellow flowers, and 
small trifoliate leaves borne on the apex of a leaf-Hke foot- 
stalk (phyllodea) 2 or 3 inches in length, which in the absence 
of the leaf look hke the true leaves of the plant. The 
leaves, like most other trifoliate leaves, particularly those of 
Averrlioa Bilimbi, coUapse during the night and on being 
touched. 

The Geranium Family. 

(Geraniace^.) 

Succulent, smooth, or prickly-stemmed shrubs, frutlets, or 
herbs ; often gouty and tuberous. Leaves alternate or op- 
posite, simple, lobed, or much divided. Flowers solitary, or 
in umbels, of showy colours. Sepals 5. Petals 5, equal or 
unequal; sometimes bilabiate. Stamens 7, 8 to 10 or 
more (often fewer by abortion) united forming a tube. 
Pistils 5. Fruit consisting of 5 one-seeded, united nuts 
joined to a common centre which is prolonged, forming a 
beak. 

Upwards of 500 species are enumerated in this family, the 
principal genera of which are the Pelargonium, native 
of South Africa, and Geranium and Erodium of Europe, 
North Asia, and America. An aromatic resinous principle 
pervades this family. Their great merit as now cultivated 
in this country is their handsome flowers, which have been 
obtained by hybridization. By some persons these showy 



THE FLAX FAMILY. 



497 



flowers are called Geraniums^ by others Pelargoniums ; bo- 
tanically the latter is correct, Geranium and Pelargonium 
differing in the form of their flower and number of stamens. 
In Geranium the petals are of uniform size and colour, form- 
ing a regular flower with 10 stamens. In Pelargonium the 
petals are of unequal size, and frequently differ in colour, the 
flower being irregular, the stamens generally 7. 

Pelargonium roseum. A native of the Cape of Good Hope, 
extensively cultivated in some parts of France for the ex- 
traction of oil of geranium. It has also been found to pro- 
duce an acid analogous to oenanthic acid, with which many 
wines are said to be flavoured. The tuberous roots of some 
of the species of Cape Pelargonium attain a considerable size ; 
those of P. antidysentericum., for instance, are as large as a 
man's head, and are used by the natives for many purposes. 
These roots are more properly stems (tuber-corms) which 
vary very considerably in appearance, some being more like 
corals than land plants. In this country the family is repre- 
sented by the native species of Geranium and Erodium. 

The Max Family. 

(LiNACEiE. ) 

Small shrubs or frutlets, perennial or annual. Leaves 
simple, alternate. Flowers solitary, blue, white, or yellow. 
Sepals and petals 4 or 5 each, the latter twisted in the 
bud. Stamens 4 or 5, alternating with dent-like glands. 
Fruit a dry 4- or 5-valved capsule, with 8 or 10 cells, each 
containing a smooth flat seed. 

About 100 species constitute this family, all widely dis- 
tributed, and found chiefly in temperate regions, one ex- 
tending to New Zealand. 

Flax {Linum usitatissimum). The cultivated flax is a 
slender, wiry-stemmed annual, attaining the height of 
about 3 feet, terminating by several pretty blue flowers, 
succeeded by a 5-valved capsule about the size of a large pea. 
The cultivation of flax is of great antiquity, fabricated fibre 
having been found amongst the remains of the pre-historic 

K K 



498 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



lake cities of Switzerland ; the mummy- cloth of ancient Egyp- 
tian tombs is also composed of flax fibre. According to Pliny 
flax formed an article of import from Egypt to Greece and 
Eome. From that time it has been extensively cultivated 
in the Northern temperate zone, growing as well in Northern 
Eussia as in the hot valley of the Nile. It is cultivated in 
this country, but more extensively in Ireland ; the supply, 
however, falls far short of the demand, and large quantities 
are imported from Eussia and other parts of Europe, as well 
as from the United States. The seeds are also an important 
article of commerce, shiploads being brought from the 
Eussian ports in the Black Sea and from the Baltic for the 
purpose of obtaining linseed oil. The compressed refuse 
forms the oil-cake used for feeding cattle. In Scotland flax 
is called lint. L. tngymim, native of East Indies, and L. ar- 
boreum, of Candia, are pretty yellow-flowered greenhouse 
shrubs. L. perenne is very like the common flax, but has 
shrublet perennial roots. L. ruhrum is a showy garden 
annual, native of Algeria, and L. monogymim^ a white-flower- 
ing perennial, native of New Zealand. Four species of 
Linum and Radiola millegrana, called Allseed, a small trail- 
ing shrublet, are the representatives of the family in this 
country. 

The Pink Family. 

(Caryophyllace^. ) 

Herbs or soft frutlets, with knotty stems. Leaves oppo- 
site, entire, sometimes very small, heath or grass-like, often 
sheathing or embracing the stem. Flowers solitary, or in 
spikes or panicles. Calyx consisting of 4 or 5 distinct sepals, 
or united. Petals 4 or 5, entire or 2-lobed. Stamens 4, 5, 
8, or 10. Pistils 2 to 5. Fruit a 2- or 5-valved capsule, 
rarely a berry. 

This extensive family, which consists of more than 1000 
species, is widely distributed, abounding in the Northern 
hemisphere, and in elevated regions within the tropics, being 
a race of cold-loving plants. 



THE PINK FAMILY. 



499 



Soap wort {Sapmaria officinalis). A strong-rooted peren- 
nial, with sub-erect, soft, herbaceous stems, 2 to 3 feet in height. 
It is generally understood to be a native of this country, but 
is rare, except in gardens. It takes its name Soapwort from 
its answering to a considerable degree the use of soap, 
forming a lather in water. It is especially efficacious in 
taking grease-spots out of woollen cloth. 

Gypsophila paniculata. A strong growing perennial, with 
narrow leaves, attaining the height of 2 feet, the whole 
having a glaucous hue, which is indicative of its native 
place, the dry Steppes of Siberia. After having ripened and 
shed its seeds, the stems become dry and hard, and breaking 
off entire from the root, are rolled up and blown about by 
the wind, collecting other matter till they become large balls, 
called witches. 

CheTleria sedoides, called Mossy Cyphel. A native of the 
mountains of Scotland ; is a curious compact moss-like plant, 
assuming the form of a ball, sometimes a foot in diameter, 
and being a miniature representative of the Balsam Bog 
plant of the Falkland Islands. 

Corn Cockle (Agrostemma Githago). A strong growing 
animal, with pretty pink flowers, but a very troublesome 
corn weed ; it being difficult to separate the seeds from the 
grain, the value of the latter is deteriorated, and the flour is 
even said to be rendered unwholesome. 

The family is interesting for its pretty flowers, such as the 
Carnation and Clove. Dianthus Caryophyllus^ found wild in 
this country, by cultivation and hybridizing is the origin of 
all the beautiful varieties of Cloves and Carnations ; and 2). 
Armeria that of double Pinks. The beautiful varieties 
of Sweet William are hybrids of D. barbatus, a native of 
Germany. 

The family is represented in this country by 60 species, a 
great number being mere weeds, such as Chickweed, Alsine 
media ; Mouse-ear Chickweed, Cerastium arvense ; and 
others. Arenaria peploides and Silene maritima are pretty 
sandy -beach plants. 

K K 2 



500 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



In alliance witli tlie preceding is a small family called 
Illecehracece, Knotworts, consisting of about 100 species of 
small weedy plants, many of them annuals, or frutlet-trailing 
plants^ with pointed stems, and generally opposite leaves, 
furnished with scarious stipules ; the latter being the prin- 
cipal character that distinguishes it from the Clove family. 
They are chiefly natives of the South of Europe, and of those 
parts of Africa bordering on the Mediterranean, generally 
growing in dry and arid places. 

Illecehrum verticillatum, Corrigiola littoralis, Herniaria 
gJahra, and Polycarpon tetraphyllum, are natives of this 
country, but rare ; while Spergvla ar vends (Spurrey), an 
annual and well-known pest in corn-fields, is common 
throughout Europe. In alliance with the preceding is the 
small family JElatinacece, Water-worts, consisting of about 20 
species of small weedy plants, growing in water, widely dis- 
tributed, and represented in this country by Elatine Hydro- 
piper and E. hexandra, chickweed-like plants. 

The Purslane Family. 

(PORTULACACE^.) 

Small succulent shrubs, frutlets, or herbs. Leaves gene- 
rally alternate, rarely opposite, entire, often with hairs at 
their base. Flowers solitary, terminal, or few, in loose pa- 
nicles ; small, or large and showy. Sepals 2. ' Petals 5. 
Stamens variable. Fruit a 1 -celled valved capsule. Seeds 
numerous. 

This family consists of about 200 species, widely distri- 
buted throughout tropical and temperate countries, generally 
growing in dry places. They possess no particular pro- 
perties or uses, except the plant called Purslane. 

Portulaca oleracea. A pot-herb of antiquity. It grows 
freely in this country, and is used as salad. With the ex- 
ception of the genus Calandrima, which has showy sun-loving 
flowers, all the others must be considered as botanical curio- 
sities. The Purslane tree, Portulacaria afra, is the largest of 



THE CABBAGE FAMILY. 



501 



the family, being a succulent shrub, with numerous fleshy, 
oblong leaves, attaining the height of about 3 feet, and of 
long life, three plants at Kew being nearly one hundred 
years old. 

The only representative of the family in this country is 
the Water Chickweed, Montia fontana, a small aquatic plant, 
growing in water and in wet places. 

THE CABBAGE, CISTUS, AND CAPER ALLIANCE. 
The Fumitory Family. 

(FUMARIACE^,) 

Herbs perennial or annual, some climbing. Leaves alter- 
nate, soft, generally many times divided, some with tendrils. 
Flowers solitary, or in spike-like heads. Sepals 2. Petals 4, 
cruciate, unequal, often ringent. Stamens 4 or 6, distinct, or 
united in two parcels. Fruit a 1- or 2-seeded nut, or a 
succulent, many-seeded pod, without valves. 

About 100 species constitute this family. They are 
natives chiefly of the Northern, but sparingly represented in 
the Southern hemisphere. Many being of a weedy nature, 
they are readily introduced through commerce into various 
countries. Several of them are handsome garden floAvers, 
especially Fumaria (JDielytra) spectabilis, a native of China. 
From the appearance of the flowers of Fumaria Cucullaria, 
it has received the name of breeches-flower, which may also 
be well applied to Fumaria spectahilis. F. officinalis is often 
to be seen growing in great abundance in suburban coal-ash 
depots, and similar situations, having the appearance of smoke, 
when seen at a distance, whence the name Fumewort. 

The Cabbage Family. 

(Crucifer^.) 

Herbs perennial, biennial, or annual, rarely frutlets. 
Leaves alternate, generally entire, or variously lobed or 
divided. Flowers in spikes or racemes. Sepals 4. Petals 



502 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



4, cruciform. Stamens 6 ; 4 long, and 2 short. Fruit .a 
siliqua or round pod, witli a partition and two rows of seeds. 
1600 species are recorded as belonging to this family, of 
which 350 are found in the middle and south of Europe ; 
they are very generally diffused throughout the Northern, 
and widely spread over the Southern hemisphere. Nearly 
100 are found in North and South America. They possess 
anti-scorbutic qualities. 

Cabbage {Brassica oleracea). This is the botanical name 
of the common white and red cabbage, Savoy, Brussels 
sprouts, Curly greens, Cauliflower, Brocoli, and all the 
varieties of what are called cabbages and greens. The solid 
red and white cabbage, Savoj'-s, &c., are formed of the 
compact leaves, and the head of Cauliflower and Brocoli is 
a metamorphosed state of the flower spikes. On looking at 
the differences individually, and knowing that they have 
from time immemorial retained their special forms, it may 
be supposed that they have as good title to be ranked as 
species as many others. It is, however, considered by most 
writers that they have all originated from the common wild 
cabbage, native of the sea-shores of this country* and of 
Europe in general ; and that their succulent nature is due to 
cultivation and selection. But no modern practical expe- 
rience has yet confirmed this theory ; and their having been 
cultivated in most ancient times makes their origin very 
questionable. Some of the varieties are said to have been 
introduced into this country by the Eomans. The cauli- 
flower and brocoli were cultivated in France and Italy in 
the middle of the sixteenth century ; and the best seed, it is 
said, came from the Greek Islands of the Mediterranean. 

Turnip (Brassica JRajm). A biennial, native of this coun- 
try and other parts of Europe. By some botanists supposed 
to be a variety of the preceding, but brought to its succulent 
state by cultivation. There are several varieties, such as 
the white and yellow, garden, and field turnip. The Swedish 
turnip is a well-known hardy variety, in general cultivation 
for feeding cattle. 



THE CABBAGE FAMILY. 



503 



Rape (Brassica napus), and Colza (B. campestris). Two 
weedy annuals, differing chiefly in the leaves of one being 
smooth, and of the other hairy. They are extensively cul- 
tivated in this country and throughout Europe for their 
seeds, which yield Rape and Colza oil. The consumption in 
this country is so great that immense quantities are imported. 
The refuse seeds form oil-cake for feeding cattle. 

Gold of Pleasure (Camelina sativa) is a plant similar to 
the preceding, and cultivated for the same purposes. 

Radish (Raphanus sativa). A native of China, and re- 
corded as having been grown in this country upwards of 
three hundred years. It is by some considered a cultivated 
state of E. JRaphanistrum,, a stringy rooted plant, native of 
the regions of the Mediterranean. The red and white turnip 
radishes are mere varieties. E. caudatus, or rat-tail radish, 
a native of India and China, has, within the last few years, 
been introduced into this country, and has been highly 
prized and much sought after on account of its long pods, 
which, under good cultivation, attain a length of 2 to 3 feet. 
It was supposed that they would supersede the common radish, 
but such is not the case. They, however, make a good pickle. 

Mustard. Sinapis alba and S. nigra are weedy plants, 
natives of this country, but are extensively cultivated for 
the sake of their seeds, which, when ground, form the com- 
mon mustard; for culinary purposes the seeds are sown 
thick and cut as soon as the cotyledonary leaves are fully de- 
veloped. It is used as a salad, with cress {Lepidium sativum). 

Charlock {Sinapis arvensis), a coarse plant growing to the 
height of 1 or 2 feet, a native probably of Southern Europe, 
but now widely dispersed, being one of the most abundant 
weeds, enlivening corn-fields with its yellow flowers. Its 
presence, however, is a sign of unskilful cultivation. The 
seeds are used for feeding cage-birds. 

Water-Cress (^Nasturtium officinale). The well-known 
water-cress is a native of Britain, and is cultivated in the 
vicinity of all large cities. It is in common use as a salad. 
A fluid extract, called Liquor Nasturtii, is made from it, and 



504 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



is of value in cases of scorbutic affections. The water-cress 
has become naturalized in New Zealand, and grows with such 
rapidity that it threatens to become troublesome in stopping 
up water-courses and rivers. 

Sea Kale {Crambe maritima). A hardy perennial, native 
of the sandy shores of Britain. It is only within the last 
hundred years that it has been a cultivated vegetable, and 
has now become a most useful one, its blanched leaf-stalks 
being one of the early spring vegetables of this country. It 
is said to have been pickled and used largely by the Romans 
for food during sea-voyages. 

Horse Radish {Coclilearia Armoracia). Although inti- 
mately connected with our national dish, roast' beef, and 
although now found wild in many parts, it is doubtful if it 
is an original native of this country ; more probably it was 
introduced from the Continent. Its tenacity of life in even 
the smallest portion of its root, causes it soon to establish 
itself in uncultivated ground. 

One of the most remarkable plants of this family is 
Pringlea anti scorbutica, a native of the uninhabited and in- 
hospitable island called Kerguelen's Land, situated in the 
Southern Ocean, 48° S., where it is a most conspicuous 
plant, and where only it is found. It closely resembles the 
common cabbage, being nearly as large, having a firm head 
and white heart. It is found in great abundance, and is 
highly valuable as a vegetable to the crews of ships touching 
there. It is chiefly distinguished from cabbage by the nature 
of its seed vessels and seeds. Another plant of the Southern 
hemisphere possessing similar properties i&Lepidium oleraceum^ 
a native of the shores of New Zealand, which proved of high 
value to the first voyagers, and has now become a cultivated 
pot-herb. 

Woad (Isatis tinctorid). A biennial, attaining the height 
of 3 or 4 feet, and found wild throughout Europe. It has 
been long famed for a dye, obtained from the leaves. Woad 
was known to the ancients, and it appears from Csesar's 
account that it was probably with the juice of this plant that 



THE CABBAGE FAMILY. 



505 



the ancient Britons painted their bodies. Since the intro- 
duction of indigo it has fallen into disuse, except with woollen 
manufacturers, who use it mixed with indigo. 

Isatis indigotica. A native of China, and, like the above, 
yields a blue dye. 

As a curiosity, what is called Cow or Jersey cabbage may 
be here noticed, being like the common cabbage, of which it 
is a variety, but growing on a stem, sometimes attaining the 
height of 12 or 13 feet, which is formed by continually strip- 
ping off the lower leaves. The stems are quite firm and hard, 
and are made into walking-sticks that are lighter even than 
cork ; the only true shrubs of the family are Vella Pseudo- 
CytisuSj native of the South of Europe, having yellow flowers, 
and several species of Iberis (Candytuft), which have woody 
stems, forming low bushes 1 to 3 feet high. 

Rose of Jericho (^Anastatica Hierochuntind). An insigni- 
ficant annual, consisting of several small-branched stems, 4 to 
6 inches in length, rising from a tap-root and at first lying 
prostrate. It is a native of Syria, Egypt, and North Africa, 
growing in dry, desert places. After the seeds are perfected 
the stems become dry, hardened, and incurved, meeting each 
other and forming a hollow, skeleton-like ball, which by the 
force of the wind is loosened and blows about the desert. 
Upon the application of moisture it again expands, retaining 
this property for many years. It grows abundantly in the 
regions about Jericho, and is held in a degree of superstitious 
sacredness by the natives, but it is difficult to explain why 
it has received the name of Eose of Jericho, as it is as unlike 
a rose as a cabbage. In this country it was kept as a curio- 
sity, but it is now superseded by its more elegant rival, the 
Resurrection plant, which see. 

The following are common showy garden plants : — Rocket 
{Hesperis matronalis) ] Wall^ower (Cheiranthus Cheiri) Ten- 
Week Stock (Matthiola annua) ; Gilly Flower or Brompton 
Stock [Matthiola incana) ; Yellow Alyssum {Alyssum saxatile); 
Purple Alyssum (Farsetia deltoidea) ; and different kinds of 
Candytufts and Arabis. 



506 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



The Eock Eose Family. 

(ClSTACE^.) 

Small shrubs, frutlets, or herbs. Leaves opposite, alter- 
nate, entire, broad or heath-like. Flowers showy, solitary, or 
in loose panicles. Sepals 3 or 5, persistent, twisted. Petals 
5, crumpled in the bud, and twisted in a contrary direction 
to the sepals. Stamens numerous, seldom few. Fruit a 3-, 
5-, or 10-valved capsule, generally numerous. 

Nearly 200 species are enumerated in this family, the 
greater number being natives of the South of Europe, 
Western Asia, North of Africa, and islands in the Mediter- 
ranean ; rarely in other parts of the world. 

Gum Ladanum {Cistus creticus). A native of Crete and 
other islands of the Mediterranean ; it produces the gum 
called Ladanum, which is collected during the heat of the 
day, by trailing or tossing a bunch of leather -thongs over 
the bushes, to which the gum adheres. It is also collected 
from the beards of goats which browse amongst the plants. 

Gum Cistus (Cistus ladaniferus). This is the beautiful 
gum cistus of the gardens. It is a native of Spain, Portugal, 
and islands of the Mediterranean. A gum exudes from the 
leaves, and is collected in the same manner as the preceding. 
Both were formerly employed in medicine, but are now not 
much used except in perfumery, and more especially by the 
Turks, who chew it and use it in various preparations. 

Rock Rose {Cistus Helianthemum). A pretty little ever- 
green shrub, with yellow flowers, native of clifis and rocky 
places in this country. There are many varieties cultivated 
in gardens, with double and different coloured flowers. Their 
stamens are peculiarly elastic; on being pressed together 
they resume their original position so quickly that the eye 
almost fails to detect the movement. 

In alliance with the preceding is the genus Cochlospermum, 
consisting of about a dozen species of shrubs or small trees, 
natives of the tropics. They have large showy yellow cistus- 



THE MIGNONETTE FAMILY. 



507 



like flowers, but differ entirely in habit from Cistacese in 
having alternate palmate leaves, also in the seeds being enve- 
loped in a fine white wool-like filament, 

Cochlospermum gossypium. A native of the peninsula of 
India. A gum called Kuteera is obtained from the stem, 
which is used as a substitute for gum Tragacanth. The 
cotton-wool of the seed-pod is sometimes used for stufiing 
pillows, &c. One species, native of Sikkim Himalaya, is a 
tree remarkable for its thick, awkward- spreading branches, 
bearing on their apex clusters of large showy yellow flowers. 
Its leaves are made into a curious rude kind of bellows, with 
which the natives of the Kymore hills smelt iron. A pair of 
these bellows may be seen in the Museum at Kew. 

The Mignonette Family, 

(Resedace^.) 

Herbs, rarely soft-wooded frutlets, with alternate, entire, 
or divided leaves. Flowers irregular, in spikes or racemes. 
Petals 5 or 6, lacerated, lateral, on a disk. Stamens 10 to 20. 
Fruit an open membranaceous urceolate capsule, or some- 
times fleshy, many-seeded. 

About 40 species constitute this family of weedy-looking 
plants, natives chiefly of Europe and the shores of the Medi- 
terranean, a few being found in India, the Cape of Good 
Hope, and California. 

Weld {Reseda Luteola). A single-stemmed annual, native 
of this country, at one time much cultivated for the dye it 
afforded, which, according to the different mordants employed, 
was either green, yellow, or blue-; it is chiefly used in colour- 
ing paperhangings : the colour called Dutch pink is also 
obtained from it. 

Mignonette [Reseda odorata). This favourite plant is a 
native of Egypt and the shores of the Mediterranean, and has 
been cultivated in this country for rather more than one 
hundred years. It was in high repute with the early Romans 
as a charm for healing wounds. In this country it is an 
annual, but in the South of Europe it becomes shrubby. 



508 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



The Caper Family. 

(Capparidace^.) 

Trees, shrubs, ampelid climbers, frutlets, or herbs. Leaves 
alternate, simple, trifoliate, or digitate. Flowers solitary, 
spicate, or racemose. Sepals 4, distinct or united. Petals 
4 or 8, equal or unequal. Stamens generally numerous. 
Fruit fleshy, pod-like, or globose, sometimes berry-like, 
borne on a gynophore. 

About 350 species are recorded of this family, which are 
widely distributed, being chiefly tropical ; many of them pos 
sess poisonous qualities. 

Caper {Capparis spinosa). A stiff prickly-branched shrub, 
with simple deciduous leaves. It is a plant of the desert 
throughout Western Asia, Egypt, Northern Africa, and 
Southern Europe, growing in rocky places, and often seen 
on old and ruined city walls. It is extensively cultivated in 
France and other parts of the South of Europe for its flower- 
buds, which are collected before expansion, and, preserved in 
vinegar, form the capers of commerce. 

Capparis Sodada is a remarkable bush, occupying large 
tracts of Central Africa, marking the transition from the 
desert to the more fertile regions of the South, and prevail- 
ing especially in Timbuctoo. The currant-like fruit is eaten 
fresh as well as dried. The burnt stems yield a salt. 

Capparis fermginea. A narrow rusty -leaved shrub, native 
of the West Indies. In Jamaica it is called the Mustard 
shrub, its berries being pungent like mustard. 

CratcBua Tapia. A tree, from 20 to 30 feet high, native 
of the West Indies. The fruit has a strong smell of garlic, 
and it is therefore called the Garlic tree of Jamaica. 

THE MOONSEED AND VINE ALLIANCE. 
The Moonseed Family. 

(Me NISPERMACE^ . ) 

■Climbing shrubs, generally twiners, rarely herbs. Leaves 
alternate, entire or lobed. Flowers inconspicuous, usually 



THE MOONSEED FAMILY. 



509 



in spike-like racemes, unisexual or bisexual ; the several 
parts of the flower varying much in number and position in 
different sexes. Fruit a small fleshy drupe. 

About 800 species are enumerated of this family, natives 
chiefly of tropical countries. Menispermum canadense, is, as 
its name implies, a native of Canada. They possess a bitter 
principle — some being tonic, others narcotic, and even 
poisonous. Some are used for the cure of snake-bites. 

Calumba root {Jateorhiza Calumbd). A native of the east 
coast of Africa^ and a considerable article of trade at Mo- 
zambique. It is not cultivated, but is found abundantly 
in the thick forests fifteen or twenty miles inland. The roots 
may be compared to Parsnips, but are more cylindrical, 
and grow in clusters slantingly in the ground. They are 
dried, cut into slices, and are of a yellowish colour. In this 
state they form the Calumba root of commerce, much prized 
for its medicinal qualities. 

False Calumba root {Coscimum fenestratum). A native of 
Ceylon. The stem varies from 1 to 4 inches in diameter, is 
Very porous, and of a yellow colour. Some years ago a large 
quantity was imported to London, cut in slices, and sold as 
Calumba root ; but its hard and woody texture readily dis- 
tinguishes it from the true Calumba root. A yellow dye is 
extracted from it. 

Cocculus suberosus. A native of the East Indies, the seeds 
of which are the true Cocculus indicus of the shops, employed 
for destroying vermin. They are extensively imported into 
this country; but it is difficult to account for their use, 
unless they serve to adulterate or " drug" fermented liquors, 
as frequently reported. Brewers are liable to a penalty for 
having them on their premises. The plant is also called ^?ia- 
mirta cocculus and A. paniculata. 

Bauna root. This is supposed to be a species of Meni- 
spermacece. It is a native of the upper regions of the 
Amazon, Rio Negro, and other places, and has round tube- 
rous roots like turnips, but of large size, some weighing 
nearly 50 lbs. It is highly poisonous when fresh, but after 



510 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



repeated macerations yields an excellent tapioca, wliicli con- 
stitutes a great part of the food of the Indians. 

The family SchizandracecB consists of about a dozen species, 
natives chiefly of India and Japan. They are trailing or 
twining climbers. 

Kadsura japonica yields, by boiling, a mucilage used in 
Japan for paperr-making. They are handsome creepers; 
several species have been long cultivated at Kew. 

Another family, Lardizahalacece, consists of a dozen species, 
having alternate trifoliate or digitate leaves. Flowers small, 
unisexual or bisexual. Fruit a berry. 

About a dozen species are enumerated of this family, 
chiefly natives of the cooler parts of India, Chili, and South 
America. The juicy fruit of some of them is eaten, espe- 
cially of Decaisma insignis, native of Bhotan, where it is 
eagerly sought after by the natives. It is thought that it 
would even be hardy and fruit in this country. Stauntonia 
latifolia, of India, and Lardizahala triternata^ live in the open 
air in this country, and are handsome evergreen climbers. 

The Grape Vine Family. 

(YlTACE^.) 

Trailing and climbing ampelids, some rising from a gouty 
base. Leaves usually alternate, entire, lobed or digitate. 
Flowers small, in spikes or panicled racemes. Fruit a pulpy 
berry, containing one or more seeds. 

About 300 species are recorded of this family, chiefly 
natives of the warmer regions of both hemispheres, some 
growing to a great length, and adhering to trees by their 
claw-like tendrils. 

Grape Vine {Vitis viniferd). The fruit is a berry, growing 
in bunches, and called Grapes. The chief manufactured 
products of the grape are wine and brandy ; the former 
obtained from the juice by fermentation, the latter by distil- 
lation. From the history of Noah we learn that the vine 
was cultivated, and wine made at a very early period. The 



THE GRAPE VINE FAMILY. 



511 



great wine and brandy producing countries now are France, 
Spain, and Portugal, from whence the chief supplies come to 
this country. The diiFerent qualities of wine are due to 
differences of soil, climate, mode of manufacture, and partly 
to the various kinds of grapes. The vine was introduced 
into England by the Romans, and appears to have been ex- 
tensively cultivated by the Monks for wine-making ; but on 
account of the uncertainty of the seasons it has long ceased 
to be cultivated for that purpose. It is extensively grown in 
hothouses, and the large luscious fruit of many fine varieties 
is used for dessert. The vine attains a great age ; that at 
Hampton Court is one hundred years old, and covers a 
surface of 2200 square feet. Raisins are the dried berries, 
and come to this country chiefly from Spain and Portugal. 
Currants (a corruption of Corinth) are a small variety, 
coming from Zante, and other islands of the Greek Archi- 
pelago. 

Virginian Creeper (Ampelopsis hederac.ea) is a well-known 
climbing plant, useful for covering walls and arbours, to 
which it clings by its tendrils, and is very beautiful from its 
leaves turning red in autumn. It is a native of North Ame- 
rica, and by some called American Ivy and Fingered Ivy. 

Cissus discolor, and others, are well-known ornamental hot- 
house creepers, the first being a native of Java. Some have 
singular stems. C. planicaulis, a native of Sikkim- Himalaya, 
has flat, broad stems, climbing to a great length over trees, 
and presenting the appearance of machinery bands. The stems 
of C. Livingstonia have a golden-brown, pile-like appearance, 
and look as though cut out of copper. Several species, such 
as C macropus and C. Bainesii, have thick gouty stems, look- 
ing like a large mangold-wurzel above ground. The first 
two are natives of Angola, and the last of Namaqua Land, 
the localities where the remarkable Welwitschia has been 
found. 



1 



512 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



THE MAGNOLIA AND CUSTARD APPLE 
ALLIANCE. 

The Magnolia Family. 

(^Iagxoliaceje.) 

Splendid trees or shrubs, evergreen or deciduous. Leaves 
alternate, entire, rarely lobed, some with pellucid dots. 
Flowers solitary, often large and showy. Sepals 3 or 6, de- 
ciduous. Petals 3, 9, or numerous; often large, thick, and 
fleshy; imbricate. Stamens free. Fruit consisting of nu- 
merous carpels, generally united and arranged in a circle, 
capsule-like, or on an elevated axis, each appearing like a 
follicle containing 1 or 2 seeds. 

Seventy or more species are described as belonging to this 
shoAvy and fragrant-flowering family. In North America 
they are chiefly deciduous. Several species are also found 
in the East and West Indies, China and Japan. They are 
represented in Australia by Tasmannia^ and in South America 
by Winter a. None have been found in Africa. 

Tulip Tree {Liriodendron Tulipifera). A noble tree, native 
of North America, attaining the height of 80 feet or more, 
with a diameter of 4 feet. It has 3-lobed leaves, and pro- 
duces a profusion of yellow flowers of a tulip-like form. The 
wood is hard and durable, takes a good polish, and is used 
for many purposes. In this country it attains a large size, 
two specimens at Kew, more than one hundred years old, 
being 70 feet high. Magnolia acuminata^ M. macrophylla^ 
M. cordataj M. auiiculata, and M. tripetala^ are small deci- 
duous trees, natives of North America and hardy. M. ma- 
crophylla has the largest simple leaf of any tree growing in 
the open air in this country. M. glauca, also a native of 
North America, is a handsome branching tree, 20 feet or 
more in height, having elliptical leaves, silvery on the under 
side, and well known for its fragrant flowers. In the United 
States it is called Swamp Sassafras. The bark and seeds are 
aromatic and pungent, and are used medicinally. 



THE MAGNOLIA FAMILY. 



513 



Magnolia grandijiora. A native of Carolina, and one of 
the most conspicuous of trees, sometimes attaining the height 
of 80 feet or more. It is an evergreen, and has firm ellip- 
tical leaves from 8 to 10 inches long, smooth and shining on 
the upper surface and of a rusty brown on the under. The 
flowers are of a yellowish-white colour, and stand upright in 
the form of a cup, 6 to 8 inches in diameter ; they are highly 
fragrant, and are the largest flowers of any tree seen in the 
open Mr in this country. There are several varieties, some 
of which are not so hardy as others. One tree at Kew, more 
than one hundred years old, for many years growing against 
a wall, but now for more than twenty years standing fully 
exposed, has attained the height of 23 feet, and a girth of 
8 feet. 

Magnolia conspicua. A tree, native of China, where it is 
called " Youlan." It is deciduous, and attains the height of 
40 or 50 feet, being very much branched, and having large 
pure white lily-like flowers, which are produced before the 
leaves expand, and in such profusion as to appear at a dis- 
tance one compact sheet of white. It was introduced in 
1789, and one of the original plants is still growing at Kew. 

Michelia Champaca. A large tree, native of India and 
Burmah, where it is cultivated for its fragrant yellow flowers, 
and is an object of veneration with the Hindoos. The bark 
is said to possess medicinal properties. M. Cathcartii and 
M. excelsa are large trees, natives of Nepal and Sikkim 
Himalaya. They have large white flowers, which are pro- 
duced before the leaves, and, where the trees are numerous 
and contiguous, present the appearance of a snow shower 
having fallen. Magnolia Camphellii is another lofty tree, 
native of the same region. It has large red flowers, which 
are very conspicuous ; plants of it have recently been intro- 
duced at Kew. 

Winter's Bark {Drimys Winteri). A native of Terra del 
Fuego, and extending northward through Chili. It has 
beautiful smooth leaves of an oblong lance form, generally 
silvery white on the under side. The bark was brought 

L L 



514 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



into repute by Captain Winter, as an antiscorbutic, as long 
ago as 1579, he having found it very efficacious in cases of 
scurvy amongst his crew. Other remedies, however, having 
since been discovered, it has fallen into disuse. 

Star Anise (Illicium anisatum). An evergreen shrub, 
native of China, attaining the height of 8 or 10 feet. It 
derives its name from the carpels of the fruit being united in 
a circle, and rayed like a star. It is highly aromatic, and is 
in great repute in China and other countries of the East, 
where it is used as a condiment with food, and is imported to 
Europe for the same purpose ; in France, liqueurs are fla- 
voured with it. It also yields an aromatic oil, used for 
flavouring, and in perfumery. /. religiosum is a pretty ever- 
green shrub, native of Japan, held sacred by the Japanese. 
I. jioiidanum is a shrub, native of Florida, also possessing 
aromatic qualities. 

Tasmannia aromatica. A native of Mount Wellington in 
Tasmania. It is a shrub, or rugged, often distorted, branched 
small tree, attaining the height of 10 or 12 feet. Its bark 
has properties similar to those of Winter's Bark. Its 
berries, being pungent, and used as a substitute for pepper, 
it is called by the Tasmanians the Pepper Plant. 

The Custard Apple Family. 

(ANONACEiE.) 

Trees, shrubs, or climbers. Leaves alternate, simple, 
entire, furnished with deciduous stipules. Flowers solitary, 
or usually 2 or 3 together, some unisexual. Sepals 3. Petals 
6, in two rows. Stamens generally numerous, free. Fruit 
dry or succulent, consisting of many united carpels, each 
containing a single seed. 

Above 300 species are enumerated of this family, being 
natives chiefly of tropical climates, a few extending beyond. 
They are chiefly valued for their fruits. 

Cherimoyer {Anona Cherimolia). A tree, native of Tro- 
pical America, and cultivated in Peru and other parts for 



THE CUSTARD APPLE FAMILY. 



515 



its fruit, which is considered by some to be one of the finest 
in the world. Like other cultivated fruits there are several 
varieties, varying in size and colour, also in having few or 
many seeds. Several species of Anona are cultivated in other 
parts of Tropical America and the West Indies, as well as in 
tropical countries of the East, of which the following are the 
principal. 

Sweet Sop (Anona squamosa). This bears a somewhat 
egg-shaped fruit, about 3 or 4 inches in diameter, covered 
with tubercles, having a cream-coloured spongy pulp. In 
the "West Indies it is called sugar apple, or sweet sop, and is 
much esteemed. 

Sour Sop {Anona muricata). A similar fruit to the pre- 
ceding, but larger, sometimes weighing 21bs. ; it is covered 
with short blunt prickles, and is esteemed by the negroes, 
but is not much liked by Europeans. 

Custard Apple or Bullock's Heart (Anona reticulata). Also • 
a large fruit having a netted skin, containing a yellowish or 
slightly red custard-like pulp. The above are all small 
trees, averaging from 20 to 30 feet in height. 

Anona triloba. A small tree or shrub found abundantly 
throughout the Southern United States of North America. 
The fruit is about 3 inches in length, enclosing a yellow, 
sweet, luscious pulp, but is not much esteemed. Hogs fatten 
on them. 

Duguetia quitarensis. A tree, native of Guiana, seldom 
attaining more than 20 feet in height. Its wood is tough 
and elastic, and is imported into this country under the name 
of Lance Wood. 

Xylopia aromatica. A tall tree, native of Western Tropical 
Africa. It has pointed egg-shaped leaves, woolly under- 
neath ; the fruit consists of a number of dry carpels, about 
tv/o inches in length, which are aromatic and used as pepper, 
being sometimes called Guinea Pepper, Negro Pepper, and, 
by old authors, " Piper ^thiopicum." 



L L 2 



516 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



(DlLLENIACE^,) 

Trees or small shrubs, sometimes twiners, rarely herbs. 
Leaves alternate, rarely opposite, in the trees large, with 
strong lateral, parallel veins, often articulated with the petiole, 
which is permanent, after the leaf has fallen ; in some the 
leaves are very small, even heath-like. Flowers yellow, soli- 
tary, or in terminal racemes. Sepals and petals 5 each. 
Stamens numerous, free, or united in several parcels. Fruit 
capsular ; dry or succulent. 

About 200 species are enumerated of this family, natives 
chiefly of India and Australia ; they are also represented 
in Tropical America ; but few are found in Africa. 

Dillenia speciosa. A handsome tree, with large ribbed 
leaves, native of India, and of the Malay Islands. The wood 
is hard and tough, the fruit and calyx are fleshy, being of an 
acid flavour, and used by the natives in cooling drinks, curries, 
and the like. The fruit of D. scahrella^ a smaller tree, is used 
for the same purposes. 

Another species, D. pentagyna^ is also common throughout 
India, and remarkable for its large leaves, which, in young 
trees, sometimes measure as much as 4 or 5 feet in length. 

Wormia excelsa. A large tree, native of Java and the 
Malayan Peninsula. It has a hard wood, which is compared 
to oak. 

Tetracera potatoria. A climbing plant, native of Sierra 
Leone. It is called the Water Tree, on account of its stem 
when cut yielding a quantity of water. 

Delima sarmentosa. Also a climber, widely distributed, 
from Ceylon, throughout India, eastward, and through the 
Malay Islands. The leaves are from 2 to 5 inches long, and 
are in common use as sand paper. The Australian section 
is represented in the greenhouses of this country by species 
of Hibhertia, Candollea, Hemistemma and others, Hihhertia 
voluhilis being an old inhabitant, and well known for its 
large yellow foetid flowers. 



517 



THE ACONITE AND POPPY ALLIANCE. 
The Aconite Family. 

(Ranunculace m). 

Herbs, shrubs or climbers. Leaves opposite or alternate, 
more or less divided, rarely entire, their footstalks sheathing, 
in some stipulseform. Flowers solitary or generally in pani- 
culated racemes. Sepals 3 — 6. Petals 3 — 5, or many, equal 
or unequal ; often with a gland or nectary-formed base. 
Fruit consisting of one or many follicles (or achenia), rarely 
pulpy, berry-like. 

About lOGO species compose this family, natives of tem- 
perate regions of both hemispheres, or in elevated regions 
within the tropics; they abound in Europe. The whole 
family are acrid and poisonous, some containing the most 
virulent of vegetable poisons. 

Aconite, Wolfs-bane, or Monkshood (Aconitum Napellus). 
A doubtful native of Britain, but, on account of its showy 
blue flowers, is a favourite in cottage gardens. It is poisonous 
in the highest degree, many fatal accidents having occurred 
through eating the leaves for parsley, but more especially 
from using the roots in place of horse-radish. The chemical 
alkaloid called Aconitine is obtained from the roots of this 
plant. 

Aconitum ferox. A native of Nepal ; the Bish or Bikh 
of the natives. It exceeds the above in virulence, and is 
considered the most formidable poison in India. Other allied 
species, natives of the Himalaya, are likewise strong poisons. 
The Indians use them for poisoning the arrows, with which 
they shoot tigers, the least wound causing certain and early 
death. 

Aconitum lycoctonum. A showy yellow-flowered species, 
native of the North of Europe, especially Lapland, where it 
grows in abundance. It is also poisonous, and is naturally 
avoided by all animals. 



518 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



Larkspur {Delphinium). The perennial species of Delphi- 
nium are similar in growth to Monkshood. D. grandi- 
florum^ D. intermedium^ D. exaltatum, D. sibiricum, D. chi- 
nense, and D. formosum^ are ornamental plants, with shoAvy 
flowers, as is also the well-known garden annual, D. consolida, 
called Branching Larkspur. 

Stavesacre (D. staphisagna) . A native of the South of 
Europe and the Levant. Its seeds are of a nauseous bitter 
taste, and are held in repute for the cure of many diseases. 
Their virtues are due to an alkaloid, which is a powerful and 
acrid poison. 

Black Hellebore {Hellehorus niger). The Christmas rose, 
as its name implies, flowers in December and January, and 
is conspicuous at that season (when mild) for its large white 
flowers. It is a native of Germany and Italy. The roots 
are black, and about as thick as the finger ; they have been 
held in high repute, in ancient as well as in modern times, 
for the cure of many diseases, being a strong drastic pur- 
gative, but dangerous when used in over doses. 

Stinking Hellebore {Hellehoms fcetidus). A native of 
Britain, but rare. It is a strong-rooted perennial, possessing 
a disagreeable odour, and acrid poisonous properties ; it has 
been employed as a domestic medicine, but is highly dan- 
gerous ; instances are on record of domestic animals being 
poisoned with it. 

Green Hellebore (ffellebor-us viridis). A plant similar to 
the last, native of Britain, and considered the true officinal 
hellebore of the druggists. Large quantities of its roots are 
yearly brought to London, and used in medical practice. 

Pile-wort {Ranunculus Ficarid). A pretty yellow flower- 
ing plant, with heart-shaped leaves, not exceeding 3 inches 
in height, native of this country, growing abundantly in 
moist shady places. After flowering it disappears, but after 
heavy rains its place is well marked by the exposure 
of the numerous little tuberous roots lying on the surface 
like grains of wheat, Avhich have been supposed by the igno- 
rant to be corn fallen from heaven. This is particularly the 



THE ACONITE FAMILY. 



519 



case in Silesia, where they are gathered and used as food, 
being very mealy, and not unwholesome when boiled. 

Water Crowfoot {^Ranunculus aquatilis). A native of 
this country, and, as its name implies, growing entirely in 
water, occupying ditches, rivers and ponds to a great extent, 
giving the surface a gay appearance with its pretty white 
flowers. It has leaves of two kinds, the floating ones being 
like little round shields, and the submerged ones fine and 
thread-like. This is one of the few wholesome species of 
the family. In some parts of England cows are entirely fed 
on it during the winter ; they, as well as horses and hogs, 
eating it greedily. 

Water Celery {Ranunculus sceleratus) . An annual, native 
of Britain, growing abundantly in ditches and wet places. 
It is something like celery, but highly acrid, blistering the 
mouth and skin, and is said to be used by beggars for making 
artificial sores. In Scotland the same use is made of the 
Lesser Spearwort {R. Flammula), but wounds so made often 
become incurable. 

Ranunculus acris^ R. hulbosus, and R. repens, are common 
British plants, enlivening woods and meadows in the month 
of May with their brilliant yellow flowers, called king cups 
and gold cups, and are supposed to be the " cuckoo buds of 
yellow hue" of Shakspeare. Like the preceding they are 
acrid and blistering, often inflaming the mouths of cattle, as 
does also the annual Corn Weed arvensis). 

Marsh Marigold {Caltha palustris). A beautiful plant, 
growing abundantly by river -banks and marshy places. It 
is commonly reputed to be acrid and poisonous. The flower- 
buds have been used as capers. 

May-Apple or Duck's-Foot {Podophyllum peltatum). A 
native of the United States, where it is found in great abun- 
dance growing in damp shady woods. It has large shield- 
like lobed leaves and white flowers ; its fi:uit is egg-shaped 
in form and about the size of a small lemon. The root and 
leaves of the plant are acrid and poisonous, but the pulp of 
the fruit is less so, and contains active medicinal qualities, 



520 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



being in repute as a substitute for mercury. It is also known 
by tbe name of mandrake. 

Fennel Flower (Nigella sativa.). An annual, about a foot 
or more in height, native of the South of Europe, Egypt and 
"Western Asia. It has finely-cut leaves, and is cultivated 
in some parts for its seeds, which are hot and pej^pery, and 
are used as a condiment in cookery. With the Egyptian 
ladies they are in repute for improving the complexion. 
The seeds of this or an allied species are supposed to be the 
Black-cummin or Fitches of Scripture.* 

N. Damascena. A garden annual, well known by the 
names of " Devil in a Bush," and " Love in a Mist." Its 
properties are similar to those of the preceding. 

Yellow Eoot {Xantliorhiza apiifolia). This is one of the 
few shrubby species of the family, being a low bush with 
finelj^-cut leaves and inconspicuous flowers. It is a native of 
North America, where it has obtained some degree of medi- 
cinal reputation, and is hardy in this country. 

Pceonia is a genus of showy flowering plants, which with 
one exception are all strong-rooted herbaceous perennials. 
P. officinalis, the double Peony, well known in every garden, 
is said to be a native of Switzerland, but has been cultivated 
in this country for more than three hundred years. P. albi- 
Jlora, native of Siberia, is similar to the last, but has double 
white flowers. P. fragrans, native of China, has large double 
red flowers, but differs from P. alhifiora in being scented 
like a rose. P. moutan, the Tree Peony, is a shrub, also 
native of China, and hardy in this country. It attains the 
height of three or four feet, and has large bluish-coloured 
flowers ; it was introduced in 1789. 

Within the last few years a number of new varieties with 
showy coloured flowers have come into cultivation. 

Virgin's Bower [Clematis Vitalha). A native of this country, 
growing, and climbing over hedges, bushes, and trees, and in 
common use for forming rustic arbours. It is also called 



* Isaiah chap, xxviii. ver. 25-27. Ezekiel chap. iv. ver. 9. 



THE FLASK LEAF FAMILY. 



521 



" Traveller's Joy" and " Old Man's Beard," the latter name 
being given to it on account of its hoary appearance through- 
out the winter, owing to a feathery appendage of the seeds. 
Like others of the family it is acrid, and blisters the skin. It 
is the only shrubby representative of the family in this 
country. The slender stems are tough and used for many 
domestic purposes. C. Sieholdtii, C. cceridea, and others, 
natives of Japan, are large showy flowering creepers, hardy 
in this country ; while C. aristata, C. gli/cinoides, C. coriacea, 
and others, are showy greenhouse creepers. 

The Flask Leaf Family. 

(Saeraceniace^) . 

Perennial herbs. Leaves hollow, tubular, from 6 inches 
to more than a foot in length, bearing the lamina on its apex, 
in the form of a lid. Flower-stalk a scape, generally bearing 
1, or sometimes 2 or more flowers. Sepals 4 — 5 — 6. Stamens 
numerous. Pistil simple, leafy, truncate, or expanded into 
a broad circular shield with 5 stigmas, in the form of pores, 
on its margin. Fruit a capsule, seeds numerous. 

A small family of plants, consisting of not more than 10 
known species, with one exception natives of North America. 
They grow in swampy places, and are remarkable for their 
hollow leaves, which are generally upright, and rise from a 
central crown, or a creeping stem. They are tubular, and 
have a lid resembling the pitcher-plant of India, the mdth 
of the mouth being from 1 to 2 inches in diameter. The 
inside of the tube is lined with curious hairs, and it generally 
contains liquid that seems to entice insects, many perishing 
in the fluid, which ultimately becomes putrid. The pistil of 
Sarracema is curious, being in the form of an open um- 
brella, with the stigmas at the angles on the under side of 
the margin. It is called " Side-saddle Flower," from the 
petals hanging down between the sepals of the calyx like a 
lady's riding-dress. 

Heliamphora nutans is a native of British Guiana. In an- 
other species of the family, Darlingtonia Californica, a native 



522 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



of California, the pitchers are at the apex of a flat leaf, and 
inverted ; in size and appearance they resemble Jargonelle 
Pears, and are used by the natives as fly traps. The pitchers 
of Sarracenia purpurea are spotted, as though marked with 
small-pox, and it is singular that it has been used by the 
Indians as a cure for that disease, and has been tried in this 
country for the same purpose, with some fancied degree of 
success. 

The Poppy Family. 

(Papaverace^.) 

Herbs or rarely shrubs, generally with milky juice. Leaves 
alternate, entire, lobed or deeply gashed, without stipules. 
Flowers solitary on long stalks, showy, rarely small, and pa- 
niculate. Sepals 2 or 3, deciduous. Petals 4 or 6, crumpled 
in the bud. Stamens numerous. Style short or absent, 
with a rayed stigma only. Fruit long, siliquiform, 1-celled, 
or capsular and many-celled, opening by pores at the apex. 
Seeds numerous. The genus Bocconia is an exception to 
the general rule, in having panicles of small flowers with- 
out petals. 

This family consists of 100 species or more. They abound 
in Europe, extending sparingly eastward into Northern Asia 
and Japan. Some are also found in Tropical America, but 
they are scarce in the Southern hemisphere, and in some 
instances may have been introduced by commerce. They 
contain a narcotic milky juice, in some of a yellow colour. 

Poppy {Papaver somniferum\ An annual, attaining the 
height of 3 feet, having large, single white or pink flowers. 
Its native country is not known, as it has been cultivated 
from the most remote ages, and was early known in Italy 
and Greece. It has long been extensively grown in India 
for its milky juice, which is obtained by scarifying the cap- 
sules when full grown, but in a green state. The juice soon 
hardens, is scraped off, formed into balls, and called Opium, 
from which morphia is obtained. The highly medicinal pro- 
perties of morphia are well known, and when used with judi- 



THE POPPY FAMILY. 



523 



cious care it is one of tlie most valuable medicines to man. 
Opium is, however, more extensively used for inducing nar- 
cotic intoxication by smoking or chewing, particularly in 
China, Turkey, Persia, India, and Siam, and to some extent 
in England. This pernicious custom, when carried to excess, 
is fatal to health, even causing madness. The capsules or 
poppyheads are dried and employed in fomentations, and a 
syrup is prepared from them for use as a cough medicine. 
Opium forms one of the ingredients of Godfrey's Cordial. 
The seeds are perfectly free from any narcotic principle. A 
fine clear oil, nearly equal to olive-oil, is obtained from them, 
which is used as salad-oil in India as well as on the Conti- 
nent, where it is expressly grown for that purpose. It is but 
sparingly cultivated in this country for its heads, the seed 
being the maw-seed given to cage-birds. The Government 
of China, being desirous to prevent the use of opium, 
destroyed a great quantity, the property of British mer- 
chants, which led to the first war with that country. The 
result being the opening of that great empire, as also Japan, 
to the trade and commerce of the world. The Poppy, there- 
fore, with the Tea, Sugar, Tobacco, and Cotton plants, have 
been important agents in changing the political and social 
conditions of nations. An import duty on tea led to the 
separation of the North American Colonies from the British 
Crown, which have become the great Republic of the United 
States. The cultivation of sugar, tobacco, and cotton in 
America and the West Indies, laid the foundation of the 
slave trade, with all the horrors that have attended it. 

Field or Eed Poppy {Papaver Rhoeas). Although this is 
one of our most beautiful British plants, and a great orna- 
ment to our corn-fields, it must nevertheless be viewed as a 
troublesome weed. It also adorns waste banks and cliffs, 
A syrup is prepared from the petals called Syrupus Rhoea- 
dos," a colouring matter used in the preparation of red 
ink. 

Horn Poppy (Glaucium luteum). A strong-rooted peren- 
nial, growing on the sandy shores of this country as well as 



524 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



on the coasts of continental Europe and North America. 
Like most seaside plants, it is of a glaucous hue, having showy 
yellow flowers, succeeded by seed-pods 4 or 5 inches in 
length, curved like horns. 

Celandine {Chelidonium majus). A bushy perennial, with 
small yellow flowers, attaining the height of 2 feet, native of 
Britain, found throughout Europe, and introduced into North 
America. The whole plant contains a thick juice of a yel- 
lowish colour, which is employed by rustics for removing 
warts, &c. ; diluted with milk it is used as an eyewash. 

Sanguinaria Canadensis. A pretty herbaceous plant, native 
of North America, not more than 6 inches high, producing 
showy white flowers early in the spring. It has thick 
branching roots, which yield a yellow pigment, used as a 
dye ; also by the Indians to colour their bodies, and for rude 
paintings. 

Papaver orientale and P. hracteatum, strong-growing 
perennials, natives of Asia Minor, are showy garden plants 
with red flowers, and are with Peony the largest-flowering 
herbs grown in the open air in this country. 

THE WATER LILY AND SACRED BEAN 
ALLIANCE. 

The Water Lily Family. 

(Nymphs ACE^). 

Aquatics, growing in deep water, having a thick creeping 
or erect bulb-like rhizomat. Leaves heart-shaped or circular, 
floating on or growing above the surface of the water. Flowers 
solitary, on a long scape, large and showy. Sepals 4 or 5. 
Petals numerous, decreasing in size towards the centre, and 
becoming stamens, which are also numerous, and with the 
petals seated on a disk, in some forming a tube. Pistil 1, 
with a rayed stigma, or wanting, with the stigmas lining the 
tube (as in Victoria). Fruit capsule-like, without valves, 
containing numerous seeds. 



THE WATER LILY FAMILY. 



525 



About 50 species are enumerated of this family, being 
cliiefiy natives of the warm regions of the Northern hemi- 
sphere. Three are natives of Britain ; they are sparingly found 
in South Africa, and are represented in Queensland by the 
magnificent Nymplicea gigantea, and by Victoria regia in Tro- 
pical America. 

Water Lily (white), Nymjphcea alba ( yellow), Nuphar lutea, 
natives of this country, and common throughout Europe. 
Nuphar advena is a native of North America; its seed-pods (so 
called) are an important article of food to the Indians, who 
collect them in large quantities and keep them for winter 
use. Nymplicsa ccerulea, N. rubra, N. dentata, N. gigantea, 
and others, are cultivated in the gardens of this country, 
being well known for their beautiful flowers ; also JV. ther- 
malis, a white flowering species found in Hu.ngary which 
appears to be the sanie as the N. Lotus of the Nile. It is 
common in India, where it is held sacred, likewise in Egypt, 
where it is found rudely sculptured on the ancient idols. 

Gorgon plant {Euryale ferox). A native of India, having 
circular leaves 2 or 3 feet in diameter, lying flat on the 
water, being very prickly and horrid-looking on their upper 
surface. It has prickly fruit, about the size of a smaU 
orange, containing black seeds the size of peas, which are 
full of albumen, and are used by the Hindoos and Chinese 
for food. It is said to have been cultivated in China for 
upwards of three thousand years. 

Victoria Lily {Victoria regia). This remarkable plant was 
first discovered by a German botanist in 1801, afterwards 
by several others in different parts of Tropical America. It 
was not, hoAvever, brought into special notice till discovered 
by Sir E. Schomburgk in British Guiana in 1837, and intro- 
duced at the Eoyal Gardens, Kew, in 1847. On account of 
its remarkable appearance it has yearly excited public curi- 
osity. In its native country it is a perennial, having a long 
under-water rhizomat, like the white water lily. In this 
country it seldom lives through the winter, but is readily 
grown from seeds each year. The plant consists of a crown 



526 



DOMESTIC BOTANY. 



producing leaves and flowers. The leaves wlien full grown 
measure 6 or 7 feet in diameter, and are perfectly circular, 
with the margin turned up about 2 inches, resembling a 
large tray. The under side is full of raised ribs, and very 
prickly. They are attached by their centre to a stalk which, 
when full grown, is often not less than 10 feet in length, and 
about the thickness of the finger. The leaves are produced 
in succession round the crown from right to left, each, 
when the plant is perfect, producing a flower-bud in its axis 
which gradually rises on a stalk to the surface, opening in 
the afternoon. The flower consists of numerous petals of a 
pure white, and when fully expanded is from 10 inches to 1 
foot in diameter ; it then emits a powerful and pleasant odour. 
During the morning of the next day it partially closes, ex- 
panding again in the afternoon, the colour then being pink, 
and on the third day it finally closes and withers. 

This and Cereus Macdonaldice are the most magnificent of 
flowers, even rivalling Magnolia grandijiora. 

The Water Bean Family. 

(Nelumbiace^). 

Aquatics, with large round peltate leaves, floating on, or 
rising above the surface of the water, and produced from a 
fleshy rhizomat. Flowers solitary on a scape equal in height 
to the leaves. Sepals 4 or 5. Petals numerous. Stamens 
numerous, seated below an elevated spongy receptacle (or 
torus). Ovaries numerous, embedded in the apex of a large 
spongy receptacle, becoming a very hard nut. 

This family consists of probably not more than three species, 
natives of India, China, Jamaica, and some parts of America, 
and have lately been discovered in the interior of Australia. 

Lotus (Nelumbium speciosum). Although this has been 
said to be the Sacred Lotus of the Egyptians, there seems 
some doubt as to its identification It is abundant in India, 
where its rhizomat stems are used for food, but more so in 



THE WATER BEAN FAMILY. 



527 



China, where it is extensively cultivated. It is held sacred 
by the Hindoos, who prepare a kind of wick from the spiral 
vessels of the leafstalk for burning before their idols. The 
flowers are generally finely tinged with pink, bnt there is a 
variety with white flowers. 

Nelumhium Caspicum^ a native of the regions of the 
Caspian, is probably only a variety ; as also N. luteum, a 
native of Jamaica, the Malay Islands, and parts of the Ame- 
rican continent, diifering only in the colour of their flowers 
being yellow. All have large showy flowers, and are culti- 
vated at Kew. Their leaves have the curious property of 
repelling water, which runs ofl" of them hke quicksilver. 

In alliance with the two preceding famihes are the water- 
shields, CahomhacecG, consisting of 2 species of Cahomha^ na- 
tives of North America, and Hydropeltis purpurea, a plant 
of wide geographical range, being found in North America, 
Himalayas and Australia. They are water-plants with small 
shield-like floating leaves, and finely-cut submerged ones. 
They dilFer from NympJicBaceoe, and Nelumhiacecd in their 
flowers being small and axillary. 



ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. 



Page 28, line 8 from bottom, /or *Mily" read " Amaryllid." 
Page 32, line 8, for " sabulare" read *' Tabul^forme." 
Page 46, line 2, omit "pea." 
Page 87, line 7, for " 1846" read " 1853." 

Page 112, before "The Ringless Fern Family" rmc? paragraph on 
next page comviencing "Ferns rank as one of the widest." 

Page 137, after 2nd line, add: "About 70 species have, by some 
botanists, been separated from this as a distinct family, under the name 
of Orontiacese. In Europe it is represented by Calla palustris and 
Acorus Calamus (the sweet flag), a native of this country. The rhizome 
of the first is mealy, and in Lapland is used as food. The rhizome of 
the latter, and also its sword-shaped leaves, are highly aromatic; it is 
used in perfumery, and has some medicinal reputation." 

Page 140, line 9, for " succulent" read "circular." 

Page 143, after line 4, add: "It is not sufficiently hardy to with- 
stand the severity of winter in this country. The only hardy fan-palm 
known is Chamaerops Fortuni, a native of China, introduced about 
25 years ago." 

Page 174, line 6 from bottom, for "produces" read "furnish." 
Page 223, /or " Dichlamyds" read " Monochlamyds, " 
Page 278, line 19, for " Dr. Boyle" read "Dr. Royle." 
Page 369, after "pot pourris," in line 6 from bottom, add: "They 
are also used in the preparation of Eau de Cologne." 

Page 421, line 12, after " which" add " with other ingredients." 
Page 425, for "Red Sandalwood" read " Red Saunder swood." 



* 



INDEX 

TO 

THE EXPLANATION OF THE PRINCIPAL BOTA- 
NIGAL TERMS IN THIS WORK. 



ACHLAMYMOUS, 43, 211 
AcotyledonoaSj all Cryptog! 
14, 62 
Acrogens, 1-7 
Albumen, 69 
Amentum, 36 
Ampelids, 21 
Anther, 44 
Apetalous, 43 
Arillus, 433 

BARK, 25, 63 
Bisexual, 50 
Bracts, 37 
Branches, 23 
Buds, 26 
Bulbs, 16 

pALYX, 39 
\J Cambium, 67 
Capsule, 56 
Carpel, 57 
Cellular tissue, 62 
Chlorophyll, 27 
Clinanthium, 36 
Corolla, 39 
Corms, 16, 18, 19 
Cotyledons, 60 
Cruciforme, 42 
Cryptogams, 14, 62, 92 
Culm, 37 
Cuticle, 25 

DEHISCENCE, 58 
Desmobrya, 113 
Dichlamyds, 43, 271 



Dicotyledonous, 60 
s, Dictyogens, 117 
Dicecia, 50 

EMBEYO, 58 
Endogens, 64 
Epidermis, 25 
Epigynous, 46 
Epiphytal, 22 
Erymobrya, 113 
Exogens, 64 

FLORET, 37 
Fronds, 33 
Fruit, 55 
Fruticuls, 21 
Frutlets, 22 
Funiculus, 58 

GALBULE, 57 
Genera, 74 
Genus, 74 
Glands, 31 
Glumes, 44 
Gymnogens, 186 
Gymnospermous, 69, 186 
Gynophore, 50 

HERBS, 14 
Hermaphrodite, 50 
Hybrid, 72 
Hypogynous, 46 

TNFLORESCENCE, 34 
JL Involucre, 37 

M M 



530 



INDEX OF BOTAfriCAL TERMS. 



LABELLUM, 52, 181 
Labiate, 45 
Latex, 67 

Laticiferous vessels, 67 
Leaves, 27 

,, large, 146, 176, 364, 525 
Lepicorm, 17 
Liber, 25 
Loculi, 49 

MEDULLARY rays, 63 
Monochlamyds, 43, 223 
Monocotyledons, 60 
Monoecious, 50 
Monopetalous, 41 
Monosepalous, 40 
Morphology, 38 
Mycology, 99 

TUECTAHY, 50 



OVARY, 39, 48 
Ovules, 49, 63 

PAL^, 44 
Palmids, 20 
Papilionaceous, 42 
Pedicel, 34 
Peduncle, 34 
Perianth, 41 
Pericarp, 57 
Periaynous, 46 
Petal, 41 
Petiole, 28 

Phjenogamons, 14, 63, 117 

Phycology,the study of seaweeds, 96 

Phyllocorm, 65 

Phyllodium, 32 

Physiology, 91 

Phytology, 90 

Pistil, 39, 47 

Pith, 63 

Placenta, 49 

Plumule, 60 

Pollen, 47, 51 

Polypetalous, 41 

Polysepalous, 40 



Pseudo-bulbs, 19 

Pteridology, the study of ferns, 112 

EACHIS, 35 
Radicle, 60 
Raphides, 67 
Receptacle, 36 
Rhizocorms, 18 
Rhizogens, 206 
Rhizomat, 18 
Ringent, 41 
Roots, 15 

OARCOCAULS, 22 
Sarmentum, 17 
Scape, 37 

Seed and its parts, 58 
Sepals, 40 
Sessile, 44 
Shrub, 14 
Spadix, 38 
Spathe, 38 
Species, 71 
Spines, 24 
Spiral vessels, 62 
Spores, 63 
Stamens, 39, 44 
Stems, 16, 20 
Stigma, 52 
Stipules, 33 
Stomata, 28 
Strobilus, 57 

THALAMUS, 39 
Thallogens, 92 
Trees, 14 
Tubers, 16 

TTKISEXUAL, 50 



VARIETIES, 72 
Vascular tissue, 62 
Verticillate, 31 

"^OODY tissue, 62 



INDEX 



TO 

THE DESCRIPTION OF THE FAMILIES OF PLANTS, 
ENGLISH AND BOTANICAL NAMES, PRODUCTS, 
USES, ETC. 



ABRAM'S oak, 218 
Absinthe, 350 
Acacia, 423 
Acanthus family, 283 
Acanthacese, 283 
Acerace33, 474 
Achlamyds, 210 
Acrogens, 107 
Aconite family, 517 
Adam's needle, 159 
Adder's tongue family, 111 
Aderne tree family, 312 
African fleabane, 352 

,, teak, 261 
Agallocha, 262 
Agar Agar, 96 
Agrimony, 411 
Ailanto, 453 
Air plant, Aerides, 180 
Akee, 472 
Alangiacese, 396 
Alder, 214 

Alexandrian laurel, 163 
Algae, 83 
Algum, 247 
Alismaceae, 132 
Alkanet, 300 
All-heal, 343 
Alligator pear, 250 
Allseed, 498 
Allspice, 370 
Almond family, 412 
Almug, 247 
Aloes. 158 



Altingiaceas, 215 

Alum root, 439 

Alyssum, 505 

Amadou, 101, 146 

Amaranthaceae, 233 

Amar^^llidacese, 166 

Amber, 428 

American aloes, 168 

,, date plum, 318 
,, moss, 170 

Amyridace^, 459 

Anacahuite wood, 308 

Anchov^y pear family, 374 

Andromeda, 324 

Angelica, 357 

Angostura bark, 451 

Anime gum, 428 

Aniseed, 357 

Anonaceae, 514 

Apocynacese, 289 

Apostasiaceas, 185 

Apple family, 404 

,, of Sodom, 294, 303 

Apricot, 414 

Aquifoliacea, 313 

Aquilariaceae, 244 

Arabic gum, 423 

Araliaceae, 361 

Arbor- vitae, 201 

Argan tree, 316 

Aristolochia family, 265 

Aristolochiacese, 265 

Arnatto, 449 

Aroidese, 134 

M M 2 



532 INDEX OF FAMILIES OF PLANTS, ETC. 



Arracacha, 358, 495 
Arrack, 145 
Arrow-poison, 311 
Arrow-root family, 173 
Artichoke, 348 
Artocarpaceae, 223 
Arum family, 134 
Assafoetida, 358 
Asarabacca, 266 
Asclepiadaceae, 292 
Asparagus, 162 
Aspen, 213 
Asphodel, 130, 158 
Assai palm, 147 
Atlas cedar, 197 
Aucuba, 365 
Aurantiacese, 457 
Auricula, 297 
Auraucaria, 198 
Australian cedar, 467 

sassafras family, 248 
,, spinach, 235 
Autumn crocus, 153 
Avellano nut, 253 
Azalea, 325 



BAEL fruit, 459 
Bags, gummy, 484 
Balanophoracese, 209 
Ball confervse, 94 
Ballata, 36 
Ballota oak, 118 
Balm of Gilead, 455, 460, 465 
„ ,, garden family, 275 

„ of Mecca, 460 
pine. 

Balsam family, 494 
„ bog, 361 
,, of Copaiva, 425 
,, Peru, 425 
Tolu, 425 
Balsaminacese, 494 
Bamboo, 123 
Banana, 174 

,, family, 174 
Banksia, 254 
Banyan tree, 228 
Baobab, 487 
Barbadoes aloes, 392 ^ 

cherry family, 469 
gooseberry, 392 
„ wild olive, 279 



Barberry family, 447 
Barcelona nut, 220 
Barrel tree, 20 
Barilla, 237 
Bark paper, 244 
Barley, 120 
Barometz, 115 
Barren wort, 449 
Barringtoniacese, 374 
Barwood, 426 
Basellaceae, 237 
Basil, sweet, 274 
Bass brooms, 148 
Bassorine, 183 
Bastard hemp family, 378 
Batata, 294 
Batideae, 237 
Bay tree, 249 
Bdellium, 460 
Bead tree family, 461 
Bean family, 416 
Bean caper family, 454 
Bear berry, 326 
Bear's-ear saxifrage, 440 
Beech, 219 
Beefwood family, 205 
Beet, 236 

Begonia family, 383 
Begoniacese, 383 
Belladonna, 307 

lily, 167 
Bell-flower family, 339 
Belotes, 218 
Benzoin, 322 
Berberidaceae, 447 
Bergamot orange, 458 
Beiel nut, 146 
Betulaceae, 213 
Bhang, 231 
Bignoniacese, 287 
Bilberry, 329 
Bilimbi, 495 
Bindweed, 294 
Birch family, 213 

,, bark, 214 
Bird lime, 313 

seed, 503, 523 
Bird's-eye maple, 474 
Birth wort family, 265 
Bish, 517 
Bitter cup, 452 
Bitter-root plant, 399 

,, sweet, 303 



INDEX OF FAi\[ILIES OF PLANTS, ETC. 



533 



Blaberry, 329 
Black boy trees, 160 
cummiu, 520 
drink, 314 
thorn, 414 
walnut, 222 
,, wood, 426 
Blacking plant, 493 
Bladder nut family, 434 
green, 485 
wort family, 282 
Bloodberry family, 239 
elze tree, 442 
root family, 177 
,, wood, 438 
Blow-pipe, 124 
Blue bells of Scotland, 340 

gum-tree, 372 
Bog moss, 108 

myrtle, 215 
Bombaceas, 487 
Borage family, 300 
Boraginaceje, 300 
Bottle tree of Australia, 488 

,, gourd, 380 
Boutry tree, 335 
Bowstring hemp, 161 
Box tree, 262 
Brake, 115 
Bramble, 411 
Bran, 119 
Brank, 241 
Braziletto wood, 425 
Brazil nut, 376 
Bread-fruit family, 223 

,, nut tree, 225 
Brexiace^, 434 
Bringals, 303 
Br it tie wort family, 93 
Brocoli, 502 
Bromeliacese, 169 
Broom, 430 

,, rape family, 282 
Brucin, 310 
Bruniaceee, 366 
Brussels sprouts, 502 
Bryony, 165, 3^2 
Bucka, 451 
Buck bean, 309 

,, thorn family, 435 
,, wheat family, 240 
Buffalo berries, 243 
Bullace, 414 



Bullocks' heart, 515 
Bulrush, 127 
Bully tree, 315 
Bunja bunya, 199 
Bunius family, 232 
Bunt, 103 
Burmanniacea, 185 
Burnet family, 408 
Burning bush, 452 
Bur reed family, 128 
Butcher's broom, 163 
Butomaeeie, 131 
Buttercup, 519 
Butterfly orchid, 183 
Butter-nut, 480 

,, trees, 316, 481 
Butterwort family, 282 
Byttneriacea,, 485 



CABBAGE family, 501 
vJ ,, palm, 147 
Cabombaceae, 527 
Cacao, 486 
Cactaceae, 386 
Cactus family, 386 
Caimito, 315 
Cajeput oil, 371 
Calabar bean, 431 
Calabash family, 286 
Calamander wood, 318 
Calamus, 125 
Callitrichace^e, 271 
Caltrops, 384, 455 
Calumba root, 509 
Calycanthacese, 404 
Calyceracese, 344 
Camellia, 478 
Camomile, 348 
Campanulaeeae, 339 
Camphire, 438 
Camphor, 251 
Camwood, 426 
CanabinaceEB, 231 
Canada balsam, 196 
Canadian rice, 122 
Canary-bird flower, 494 

,, seed, 125 
Candleberry myrtle family, 214 
Candle plant, 352 

„ tree, 287 

,, nut, 258 
Candy tuft, 505 



534 



INDEX OF FAMILIES OF PLANik., iLiC. 



Cannonball tree, 376 
Canterbury bells, 340 
Caoutchouc, 259, 291 
Cape gooseberry. 304 

jasmine, 334 
Caper family, 508 
Capillaire, 115 
Caprifoliacese, 335 
Capparidacese, 508 
Capsicum, 304 
Carageen moss, 95 
Carambola, 495 
Caraway, 356 
Cardamoms, 172 
Cardoon, 348 
Caricature plant, 28 
Carnation, 499 
Carob tree, 421 
Carpet broom, 122 
Carrot, 355 
Caryophyllacese, 498 
Cascarilla bark, 261 
Cashew nut, 463 
Cassava, 255 

Cassia bark and buds, 251 
Cassie pomade, 424 
Cassythaceae, 251 
Castor oil, 256 
Casuarinacea, 205 
Catalpa, 288 
Catchflies, 52, 522 
Catechu palm, 146 
Cat thyme, 275 
Cattemandoo g»m, 257 
Cauliflower, 502 
Cayenne pepper, 304 
Cedar of Goa, 200 

Australian, 467 
Lebanon, 196 
„ wood, 202 
Cedrelacese, 467 
Cedron, 453 
Ceiba, 489 
Celandine, 524 
Celastracese, 433 
Celery, 356 
Cephalotacese, 440 
Ceramiacesg, 95 
Cereus, 389 
Ceylon moss, 95 
Chain etiace^, 435 
Chair cane, 150 
Champignon, 100 



Characeae, 97 
Charlock, 503 
Cheese-rennet, 339 
Chenopodiace«, 234 
Cherry, 415 

„ pie, 308 
Chervil, 357 
Cherimolia, 514 
Chestnut, 219 

,, Cape, 451 
Chica paint, 287 
Chickweed, 499 
Chicory, 346 

Chico turpentine tree, 465 
Chili pine, 198 
Chillies, 303 
Chinese date, 318 
Chirata, 309 
Chittagong wood, 467 
Chives, 155 
Choco, 380 
Chocolate bean, 486 

„ nut family, 485 
Choke pond weed, 133 
Chrysanthemum, 352 
Chrysobalanaceae, 415 
Christmas rose, 518 
Christ's thorn, 437 
Cinchonacese, 330 
Cinnamon, 250 
Cistacea?, 506 
Cistus rape family, 208 
Citinacese, 208 
Citron, 457 
Clearing nut, 311 
Cleavers, 339 
Cloud-berry, 411 
Clove, garden, 499 
Clove family, spice, 370 
Clover, 419 
Club-moss family, 110 
Cobnut, 220 
Coca leaf family, 468 
Cockle, 499 

Cockscomb family, 233 
Cocoon antidote, 381 
Cochineal plant, 388 
Cochlospermum, 506 
Cocoa nibs, 486 

,, nut, 143 

,, plum family, 425 
Cocuswood, 426 
Coffee, 331 



INDEX OF FAMILIES OF PLANTS, ETC. 



535 



Cola, 489 
Golchicum, 153 
Ooltefoot, 349 
Colocynth, 380 
Coka oil, 503 
Combretaceae, 394 
Comelynacese, 151 
I Comfrey, 300 

Common cherry laurel, 415 
Composite family, 345 
Conch "apple, 402 
Conferva family, 93 
Confervacess, 93 
Coniferae, 190 
Conium, 360 
Connaracese, 466 
Contrayerva root, 230 
Convolvulaeeae, 294 
Coopers wood, 437 
Ccpaiva balsam, 425 
Copal gum, 428 

,, Indian, 476 
Copai-ye wood, 470 
Coquilla nut, 148 
Coquita nuts, 147 
Coral tree, 430 
Cordiaceae, 307 
Coriariese, 456 
Cork oak, 217 
tree, 217 

,, wood of Jamaica, 489 
Corn cockle, 499 

„ flag, 179 
salad, 342 
Cornaceae, 364 
Cornelia cherry, 364 
Cornel tree, 364 
Costus, 350 
Cotton, 491 

,5 grass, 128 
Couch grass, 126 
Courbaril tree, 427 
Cowbane, 360 
Cow-berry, 329 
Cow cabbage, 505 
itch, 431 

„ trees, 225, 291, 316 
Cowslip, 297 
Crab eyeSj 431, 

„ oil, 462 

,, apple, 405 
Crake-berry, 263 
Cranberry family, 328 



Crassulag, 397 
Crassulace^, 396 
Creeping Cereus, 389 
Creosote, 194 
Crescentiaeeae, 286 
Cress, 503 
Crocus, 179 
Crowberry family, 263 
Croton oil, 256 
Crowfoot, 519 
Crown Imperial, 15S 
Cru-eiferae, 601 
Cryptogams, 92 
Cuba feast, 492 
Cuekoo-pint, 135 
Cucumber, 379 
Cucurbitacese, 37 S 
Cudbear, 107 
CuEamin, 356 
Cunonaeese, 441 
Cupuliferas, 216 
Currants, 393, 511 
Curly gr&ens, 502 

CUECUE, 125 

Cuscuta<;e^, 296 
Custard apple fa,mily, 514 
Cutch, 423 
Cycus family, 187 
Cy^adaeese, 187 
Cyperacese, 127 
Cypress, 187 
Cyrilkeesg, 326 



T\AFFODIL, 167 
jJ Dahlia, 353 
Daisy, 354 
Dammara resin, 19S 
Dammar, 476 
DamsoE, 414 
Dandelion, 347 
Darnel, 126 
Dafce palm, 144 
„ plum, 317 
Datiscace^, 378 
Datiscine, 378 
Day lily, 158 
Deadly nightshade, 306 
Deciduous cypress, 199 
Deodar, 197 
Devil's dung, 358 
Devil in a bush, 520 
Dew -berry, 411 



536 INDEX OF FAMILIES OF PLANTS, ETC. 



Dextrine, 302 
Diapensaeese, 310 
Diatomaceae, 93 
Dichlamyds, 211, 271 
Dill, 356 
Dilleniaceae, 516 
Dioscoreaceee, 165 
Dipsacese, 343 
Dipterocarpeae, 475 
Dittany, 275 
Divi divi, 426 
Dock, 240 
Dodder family, 296 

,, laurel family, 251 
Dogbane family, 289 
Dogwood family, 364 
Donax, 126 
Double cocoa nut, 141 
Doum palm, 142 
Dove's dung, 155 
Dove plant, 183 
Dragon's-blood tree, 151, 161 
Drop wort, 411 
Droseraceag, 442 
Drupace£8, 412 
Dry rot, 101 
Duck's foot, 519 

weed family, 134 
Duke of Argyle's tea-tree, 307 
Dulse family, 95 
Dumb cane, 136 
Durian, 489 
Dutch rushes, 110 

,, pink, 507 
Dwa], 307 



TUGLE-WOOD, 245 
i Earth nut, 419 . 
Earth pea, 419 
Eau de Cologne, 273 
Ebenaceas, 317 
Ebony, 318 

„ St. Helena, 486 
Jamaica, 426 
Egg plant, 302 
Elaterium, 381 
Elatinacese, 500 
Elder tree, 335 
Elseagnacese, 242 
Elecampane, 349 
Elephant's foot, 166 
Elm family, 232 



Emden groats, 121 
Empetracese, 263 
Endive, 347 
Endogens, 118 
English mercury, 235 
Ensete, 175 
Epacridacese, 327 
Epacris family, 327 
Equisetacese, 109 
Ergot, 104, 121 
Ericaceae, 323 
Eriocaulacese, 129 
Ervalenta, 418 
Erythroxylaceae, 468 
Eryngo root, 358 
Escalloniacese, 394 
Escalonia family, 394 
Esparto grass, 124 
Euphorbiacese, 254 
Evening primrose family, 385 
Evergreen cypress, 200 
Exogens, 210 



FAIRE apples, 303 
Fairy rings, 99 
False acacia, 429 
caper, 257 
„ sandalwood fomily, 278 
Fan palm, 142 
Fennel, 357 

„ flower, 520 
,, oil, 357 
Fenu-greek, 420 
Fern family, 112 
Feverfew, 349 
Fig tree, 226 

marigold family, 398 
Fig wort family, 280 
Filberts, 220 
Filices, 112 
Filmy-leaf ferns, 114 
Finicho, 357 
Fir family, 1 92 

„ rape, 327 
Fitches 520 
Flag, corn, 179 
Flacourtiacese, 449 
Flame trees, 337, 490 
Flask-leaf family, 521 
Flax family, 497 
Fleabane, African, 352 
„ powder, 348 



INDEX OF FAMILIES OF PLANTS, ETC. 



Florence oil, 319 
Fleur de Luce, 179 
Flour, 119 

Flowering-nettle family, 383 
5, rush family, 131 
Fly agaric, 101 
„ poison, 101 
Fools' parsley 360 
Forbidden fruit, 458 
Forget-me-not, 301 
Foxglove, 280 
Francoacese, 440 
Frangipane 292 
Frankeniacese, 444 
Frankincense. 460 
Fraxinella, 451 
French beans, 417 

honeysuckle, 419 
Frog- bit family, 133 
Fucaceas, 96 
Fuchsia, 385 
FumariaceEB, 501 
Fumitory family, 501 
Funeral cypress, 201 
Fungus family, 9S 
Furze, 34 
Fustic, 229 



GALANGALE, 172 
GraliaceEe, 338 
Gall, 218, 465 
Gambier, 334 
Gamboge family, 480 

„ Americana, 483 
Garlic, 155 

tree, 508 
,, shrub family, 240 
Garryacese, 267 
Garryad family, 267 
Gean tree, 415 
Gee, 317 

Gentian family, 308 
Gentianacese. 308 
Gentianella,'309 
Geranium family, 496 
Geraniacete, 496 
German tinder, 101 
Gesneracese, 284 
Ghee, 317 
Gherkins, 379 
Giant fennel, 358 
Gillyflower, 505 



Gingerbread plum, 415 
Ginger family, 171 
Ginseag, 362 
Gladiolus, 179 
Gladwin, 179 
Glasswort, 236 
Glastonbury thorn, 407 
Globe amaranth, 234 
Gloxinia family, 284 
Glue tree, 395 
Gnetaceje, 203 
Gogul resin, 460 
Golden apple, 464 
Gold of pleasure, 503 
Goodeniace^, 341 
Gooseberry family, 393 
Gopherwood, 200 
Gorgon plant, 525 
Gourd family, 379 
Grains of Paradise, 172 
Graminese, 119 
Granadilla, 402 
Grape-vine family, 510 
Grapple-plant family, 285 
Grass family, 119 

of Parnassus, 446 

,, cloth plant, 230 
tree, 131 
gum tree, 160 

,, wrack, 134 
Green ebony, 426 

,, heart tree, 250 
Grossulariacese, 393 
Ground ivy, 275 
„ nut, 419 
Groundsel, 354 
Guaco, 266, 350 
Guavas, 370 

,, berry, 371 
Guarana, 473 
Guelder rose, 336 
Guernsey lily, 167 
Guinea corn, 122 

heaweed, 240 
,, pepper, 515 
Gulfweed, 97 
Gum ammoniacum, 359 

,, auimi, 476 

,, arable, 423 
assafcetida, 358 

„ bags, 484 

,, cistus, 506 
elemi, 461 



588 INDEX OF FAMILIES OF PLANTS, ETC. 



Gum euphorbium, 257 
galbanum, 359 
guaiacum, 454 
hog, 481 
„ kiuo, 372, 425 
,, Opopanax, 359 
,, sagapenum, 359 

sarcocol, 254 
,, seed family, 447 
,, Senegal, 428 
,, storax, 322 
„ tragacaiith, 422 
,, trees, 372 
Gun jab, 231 
Gutta-percha, 315 
Guttifer^, 480 
Gymnogens, 186 
Gymnosperms, 186 



HiEMADORACE^, 177 
Hag taper, 282 
Haloragacefe, 384 
Hamamelidacese, 366 
Handflower-tree, 488 
Harebell, 339 
Haricot-bean, 418 
Hassocks, 130 
Hawthorn, 407 
Hay, 125 
Hazel nuts, 220 
Heartsease, 446 
Heath family, 323 
Heather ling, 324 
Heliotropium, 308 
Hellebore family, 518 

„ black, 518 
Helwingiaceae, 267 
Hemlock, 360 
Hemp family, 231 

,, Indian, 292 
Henbane, 306 
Henna family, 437 
Herb of grace, 451 
„ St. Martin, 446 
,, Paris, 165 
Hickory, 222 
Hippocrateacese, 437 
Hog gum, 481 
,, plum, 464 
Holly family, 313 
Hollyhock, 492 
Holm oak, 218 



Homaliacese, 393 
Honeysuckle, 335 

„ trees, 254 
Honeyflower, 455 
Honeyflower, poisonous, 325 
Hop, 231 

,, hornbeam, 221 
Horehound, 275 
Hornbeam, 221 
Horn poppy, 523 
Horned pond weed, 133 
Hoi'nwort, 271 
Horse chestnut, 471 
radish, 504 

,, tree family, 288 

,, tail family, 109 
Hottentots' bread, 166 

fig, 398 
Houseleek family, 396 
Humble plant, 424 
Humeriace^, 462 
Hungary water, 273 
Huon pine, 203 
Husks of Scripture, 422 
Hyacinth, 157 
Hydrangacese, 441 
Hydrangea family, 441 
Hydrocharidaceas, 133 
Hydropeltis, 527 
Hydrophyllum, 301 
HypericaceEe, 482 
Hyssop, 274 

,, Solomon's, 508 



ICELAND moss, 105 
1 Ice plant, 399 
Indian corn, 121 

cress family, 493 
„ fig, 388 
,, hemp, 292 
kale, 135 
curtains, 125 
„ plum family, 449 
„ sarsaparilla, 294 
shot, 173 
India-rubber trees, 227, 259 
Indigo, 421 

„ green, 436 
Insect wax, 320 
Iodine, 97 
Ipecacuanha, 333 
Iridaceae, 178 



INDEX OF FAMILIES OF PLANTS, ETC. 



Iris family, 178 
Iroawood tree (Tasmanian) 321 
Ivory nut, 150 
Ivy, American, 511 
family, 361 
,, fingered, 511 



TACK FRUIT, 224 
u Jaggery, 145 
Jalap, 295 
Jamaica birch, 461 
cedar, 467 
rosewood, 321 

,, wild rose, 367 
Jambolan tree, 371 
Japan lacquer, 465 
Japanese wax, 465 
Japonicas, 436 
Jarool, 438 
Jasminacese, 321 
Jasmine family, 321 

„ oil, 322 
Jersey cabbage, 505 
Jerusalem artichoke, 345 
Jesuits' bark, 332 
Jews' mallow, 484 
Judas tree, 430 
Juglandacese, 221 
Jujube, 436 
Juncaceae, 130 
Juniper, 201 

,, roots, 209 
Jute, 484 



KALMIA, 325 
Kamala, 263 
Kat, 434 
Kauri pine, 198 
Kava, 269 
Kei Apple, 450 
Kelp, 96 

Kerguelen's Land cabbage, 504 
Kermes oak, 218 
Kidney bean, 417 
King of the wood, 182 
Kino gum, 372, 425 
Knawell, 400 
Knotwort, 500 
Kokra wood, 262 
Kumquat, 459 



LABIATA, 272 
Laburnum, 429 
Lace bark, 244 
Lacistemaceas, 401 
Lacquer, Japan, 465 
Lac stick, 473 
Lance wood, 515 
Larch, 196 
Larkspur, 517 
Lattice leaf, 132 
Laudanum, 522 
Lauracese, 249 
Laurel family, 249 
„ cherry, 410 
Laurustiuus, 336 
Lavender, 272 
Laver, 94 

Leadwort family, 298 
Leather-leaf, 242 

wood, 243 
Lecythidacese, 375 
Leek, 155 
Leguminosae, 416 
Lemnacese, 134 
Lemon, 457 

grass, 124 
Lenitive electuary, 421 
Lentibulariacese, 282 
Lentil, 418 
Lentisk, 464 
Leopard wood, 225 
Letter wood, 225 
Lettuce, 347 
Lichen family, 105 
Lignum- vitse, 454 
Lign aloes, 245, 461 
Lilac, 319 

tree, Australian, 462 
Liliacese, 154 
Lilies, 156 
Lily family, 154 

,, of the valley, 162 
Lime fruit, 458 

„ tree, 484 

„ berries, 484 

,, wort family, 97 
Linden tree family, 483 
Ling, 324 
Linseed oil, 498 
LinacBEe, 497 
Lint, 498 

Liquidambar family, 215 
Liquorice, 420 



540 



INDEX OF FAMILIES OF PLANTS, ETC. 



Litchi, 472 
Little Goody, 257 
Live leaf plant, 397 
Liverwort family, 109 
Lizard-tail family, 270 
Loasacese, 383 
Lobeliaceae, 341 
Lobelia family, 341 
Locust pods, 422 
tree, 421 

„ of North America, 429 

,, ,, West Indian, 427 
Logwood, 426 
Lombardy poplar, 213 
London pride, 440 
Longan, 472 
Loosestrife, 297 
Loquat, 407 
Loranthacete, 336 
Lords and ladies, 135 
Lotus of the Nile, 526 
Love apple, 304 

„ flower, 158 

„ lies bleeding, 234 

„ in a mist, 520 
Lucerne, 419 
Lung lichen, 106 
Lung- wort, 281 
Lupin, 420 
Lycopodiaceje, 110 
Lythracese, 437 



MABOLA, 318 
Macaw tree, 150 
Macaroni, 119 
Mace, 246 
Madder family, 338 
Madia oil, 351 
Magna, 1 68 
Magnolia family, 512 
Magnoliacete, 512 
Mahogany family, 467 
Maidenhair tree, 203 
Maize, 121 
Maizena, 122 
Malacca cane, 151 
Malagetta pepper, 172 
Malambo bark, 261 
Malay apple, 371 
Malasherbiaceas, 402 
Mallow family, 490 
Malpighiacese, 469 



Malt, 121 

Malvaceae, 490 

Mamme apple, 481 

Mammoth tree, 199 

Manchineel tree, 257 

Mandrake, 304, 382 

Mango tree, 463 

JMangel wurzel, 236 

Mangosteen, 480 

Mangrove family, 377 

Mangroves, 279 

Manilla hemp, 175 

Manna, 107, 320, 372, 422, 443 

„ grass, 122 
Maple family, 474 
Marantacese, 173 
Marattiacese, 112 
Margraviace^, 482 
]\Iarjoram, 274 
Marking nut, 465 
Jilarmalade, 459 
Marsh-mallow, 492 

„ marigold, 519 
Marsilleaces;, 111 
Marvel of Peru family, 238 
]\Iary's thistle, 353 
xMastic, 464 
llati, 314 
Madco. 269 
Mats, 144, 484 
Mauritia palm. 143 
Maw-seed, 523 
May apple, 519 
Meadow saffron, 153 
Meadow-sweet, 411 
Medick, 419 
Medlar, 406 

,, Japan, 407 
Melanthaceae, 152 
Melastomacese, 367 
]\[e]astom family, 367 
Meliacese, 461 
Melilot, 420 
Melon, 379 

„ thistle, 391 
Menispermaceae, 508 
Mesembryaceas, 398 
Mezereon, 243 
Mignonette family, 507 

., Jamaica, 438 
Mildew, 102 
Milkwort family, 474 
Millet, 122 



INDEX OF FAMILIES OF PLANTS, ETC. 



541 



Mimosa, 424 
Mint family, 272 
Mistletoe family, 336 
Mock orange family, 377 

„ passion flower family, 374 
Mocan, 479 
Molasses, 123 
Money-wort, 297 
Monimiacese, 248 
Monkey bread, 487 
Monkey flower, 281 

,, pot family, 375 
Monkshood, 517 
Monochlamyds, 211 
Moon flower, 295 

seed family, 608 
Moraceae, 226 
Mora tree, 427 
Morel, 100 

Moreton Bay chestnut, 427 
Morocco leather, 465 
Moss family, 107 
Moulds, 104 
Mountain ash, 4 05 
Mouse-ear, 499 
Moving plant, 424 
Moxa, 101, 350 
Muddar, 293 
Mulberry family, 226 

tree, 228 
Mullein, 281 
Munjeet, 338 
Musacese, 174 
Mushroom, 99 
Musk plant, 281 

„ tree, 351 
Mustard, 503 

,, tree family, 278 
Mastic treC; Peruvian, 466 
Myoporacese, 278 
Myricacea?, 214 
Myristicacese, 245 
Myrobalan family, 394 
Myrrh family, 459 
Myrsinaceoe, 312 
Myrtle family, 368 
Myrtacese, 368 



APOLEONACE^, 374 
Narciss family, 166 
Narcissus, 166 
Nasturtium, 494, 503 



Natal plum, 292 
Navelwort, 397 
Negro pepper, 515 
Nelumbiacese, 526 
Nectarine, 413 
Nepenthacese, 264 
Nettle family, 229 

,, tree, 230 
New Zealand flax, 160 

,, ,, spinach, 400 
Night flowering cereus, 389 
Night moth plant, 183 
Nightshade family, 301 
Nolanace^, 307 
Norfolk Island spruce, 198 
Norway timber, 193 
Noyau, 295 
Nuts, 220 

Nutmeg tree family, 245 
Nux vomica family, 310 
Nyctaginacere, 238 
Nymphagaceae, 524 



OAK family, 216 
,, galls, 218 
Oatmeal, 121 
Oats, 121 
Ochnaceee, 455 
Ochro pods, 493 
Oil of bergamot, 458 
Oil cake, 492, 498 
of jasmine, 322 
,, neroli, 459 
5, palm, 148 
,, of rhodium, 295 
Olacacese, 450 
Oleaceee, 319 
Oleander, 289 
Oleaster family, 243 
Olibanum, 460 
Olive family, 319 

,, oil, 319 
Onagraceee, 385 
Onion, 155 
Ophioglossaceee, 111 
Opium, 522 
Orache, 235 
Orange family, 457 
Orchidacese, 180 
Orchid family, 180 
Orchil, 106 
Ordeal tree, 290 



542 



INDEX OF FAMILIES OF PLANTS, ETC. 



Ordeal bean, 431 
Orobanchacese, 282 
Orontiaceae, 528 
Orris root, 179 
Osier, 212 
Ossage orange, 228 
Oswego tea, 276 
Ptaheite apple, 464 
Oxalic acid, 495 
Oxalidacese, 495 
Oxalis family, 495 
Oxlip, 297 



PADDLEWOOD tree, 290 
Palmaceae, 138 
Palma Christi, 256 
Palmet, 130 
Palmata palm, 143 
Palm family, 138 

„ oil, 148 
Palmyra palm, 140 
Panama hats, 138 
Pandanaceae, 137 
Pangiacese, 403 
Pansies, 446 
Papaveracese, 622 
Papaw family, 402 
Papayacefe, 402 
Paper birch, 214 
„ mulberry, 229 
„ reed, 128 
Papyrus, 128 
Paraguay tea, 314 
Park leaves, 483 
Parsley, 356 

,, piert, 408 
Parsnip, 355 
Passifloracese, 401 
Passion-flower family, 401 
Patchouli, 275 
Paulownia imperialis, 280 
Pea, 417 
Peach, 413 

,, palm, 147 
Pear, 405 
Pedaliaceae, 285 
Pekeanut, 479 
Pelargonium, 496 
Pellitory of Spain, 349 
Penang lawyers, 141 
Pencil cedar, 201 
Pennyroyal, 273 



Peony, 520 

Pepper family, 268 
,, of Tasmania, 514 
„ ^thiopicum, 515 

Peppermint, 273 

Peppers, 268, 303 

Pepper tree, Japan, 454 
,, wort family, 111 

Persian berries, 436 

Persimmon, 318 

plum, 318 

Petiveracese, 240 

Peruvian bark. 332 

Phsenogams, 117 

Philadelphacefe, 377 

Philesiaceae, 164 

Phlox family, 298 

Phvtolaccacese, 239 

Pi,' 137 

Piasabba, 148 

Picary nut, 222 

Pigeon pea, 418 

Pig nut, 222 

Pilewort, 518 

Pimento, 370 

Pimpernel, 297 

Pine wood, 191 

,, apple family, 169 

Pinhoen oil, 256 

Pink family, 498 

Piperacese, 268 

Pipe wort family, 129 

Pipul tree, 228 

Pishamin, 291 

Pistachia nut, 464 

Pita thread, 169 

Pitch, 194 
,, pine, 193 

Pitcher-plant, 264 

,, Australian, 440 
„ leaf family, 264 

Pittosporacea?, 447 

Piwarrie, 255 

Plane tree family, 215 

Plantain family, 174 

Platanaceffi, 2] 5 

Plum tree, 414 

Plumbaginacese, 298 

Podostemaceae, 270 

Poison plant of Australia, 432 
„ oak, 466 

Poke, 239 

Polemoniacese, 298 



INDEX OF FAMILIES OF PLANTS, ETC. 543 



Pollard, 119 
Polyanthus, 297 

„ Narcissus, 167 
Polygalacese, 474 
Polygonacese, 240 
Polypodiacese, 113 
Pomacese, 404 
Pom aloe, 458 
Pomegranate, 368 
Pond weed family, 132 
Pontederacese, 163 
Poplar, 213 

„ rod, 322 
Poppy family, 522 
Porcupine wood, 144 
Porewort family, 445 
Portulacacese, 500 
Potato, 301 
Pottery tree, 416 
Pride of India, 461 
Primrose family, 296 
Primulacese, 296 
Prince's feather, 234 
Privet, 319 
Proteacess, 252 
Protea family, 252 
Prunes, 414 
Prussic acid, 414, 415 
Pudding berries, 365 
Pufifball, 101 
Pulque, 168 
Pumpkin, 80 
Purslane family, 500 
Puya fibre, 230 
Pyroligneous acid, 94 



QUAMASH, 156 
Quandang nut, 247 
Quassia wood, 452 

family, 452 
Quillagse, 412 
Quilo, 412 
Quince, 406 
Quinine, 332 

,, family, 330 
Quinoa, 235 



EADISH, 503 
Raiaesiaeese, 207 
Raisins, 511 
Rampion, 340 



Ranunculacese, 517 
Rape, 503 
Rasplaerry, 410 

,, palm, 150 
Red cedar, 202 
„ snow, 95 

„ wood of California, 199 
„ „ St. Helena, 486 
„ wood, 486 
Reeds, 126 
Reed mace, 129 
Reindeer moss, 106 
Resedacese, 507 
Resin, 194 
Restiacese, 129 
Resurrection plant, 110 
Revalenta meal, 418 
Rhamnacese, 435 
Rhatany, 475 
Rhea fibre, 230 
Rhizobolacese, 479 
Rhizogens, 206 
Rhizophoracese, 377 
Rhododendron, 324 
Rhubarb, 241 
Rib grass family, 299 
Rice, 1-22 

,, paper plant, 362 
Riga timber, 193 
Rocambole, 155 
Rock lily, 184 

rose family, 506 

,, tripe, 105 
Rocket, 505 
Room, 284 
Rosacese, 408 
Rose apple, 371 

,, family, 408 
of Jericho, 505 

,, Sharon, 167 

„ tree, 324 
Rosemary, 273 
Rosewood, 426 
Rosin, 194 
Rowan tree, 405 
Roxburghiacefe, 165 
Rue family, 450 
Rum, 123 
Rush family, 130 
Rust in wheat, 448 
Rutacese, 450 
Rye, 104, 121 

„ grass, 125 



544 INDEX OF FAMILIES OF PLANTS, ETC. 



SABADILLA, 153 
Sabicu timber, 428 
Sachet-powders, 369 
Sack tree, 226 
Sacred bamboo of China, 448 
Sacred bean, 526 
Safflower, 351 
Saflfron, 179 
Sage, 274 
Sago, 146, 188 
Sainfoin, 419 
Salep, 183 
Salicacese, 211 
Salicine, 212 
Sal wood, 476 
Sallow, 212 
Salt tree, 444 
Salvadoraceee, 278 
Samphire, 357 
Samydaceae, 400 
Sandalwood family, 246 

red, 426 
Sandarach, 201 
Sandbox tree, 258 
Saunderswood, 425 
Sanguisorbacese, 408 
Santalacete, 246 
Santa Maria wood, 482 
Sap green, 435 
Sapindacese, 471 
Sapodilla plum, 315 
Sapotaceae, 314 
Sappam wood, 426 
Sapucaia nut, 376 
Sarcocol family, 254 
Sarraceniacese, 521 
Sarsaparilla, 164 

,, family, 164 
Sassafras tree, 248 
Satin wood, 468 
Saururacese, 270 
Sauvagesiacese, 446 
Savoy, 502 
Saxifragacese, 439 
Saxifrage family, 439 
Scammony, 295 
Scarlet, 218 

,, runner bean, 417 
Scimitar pods, 432 
Scio turpentine, 465 
Scleranthse, 400 
Scorzonera. 348 
Scotch fir, 'l93 



Screw pine family, 137 
Scrophulariaceae, 280 
Sea buckthorn, 242 

,, heath family, 444 

„ holly, 368 

,, kale, 504 

,, side grape, 242 

,, swallow's nest, 96 

,, weed family, 96 
Sebesten family, 307 
Sedge family, 127 
Selaginacese, 277 
Semolina, 119 
Senegal gum, 423 
Senna, 421 
Sensitive plant, 424 
Service tree, 406 
Sesamum oil, 285 
Shaddock, 458 
Shallon, 326 
Shallot, 155 
Shamrock, 419, 496 
She oak, 206 
Shea butter, 317 
Shepherd's club, 282 
Sherbet, 364 
Shittim wood, 423 
Shola, or solah, 421 
Solomon's balm of Gilead, 172 
Siberian crab, 407 
Sidesaddle flower, 521 
Silk oak, 252 

,, cotton, 489 

„ family, 487 
Silphium, 359 
Silver fir, 195 
„ rod, 158 
,, trees, 252 
Simaruba bark, 452 
Simarubaceee, 452 
Skirret, 357 
Sloe, 414 
Smut, 103 
Smilacese, 164 
Snake gourd, 381 
„ root, 266, 475 
„ seed, 472 
„ wood, 225, 311 
Snapdragon, 281 
Sneeze wood, 472 
Snowberry, 336 
Snowdrop, 169 

tree family, 322 



INDEX OF FAMILIES OF PLANTS, ETC. 



545 



Snowy mespilus, 407 
Snuff, 306 
Soap bark, 412 
Soap-berry family, 471 
Soap bulb, 157 

„ nut oil, 471 

„ wort, 499 
Solanacese, 301 
Solomon's seal, 162 
Sorrel, 242 

Souara nut family, 479 
Sour gourd, 487 
Southernwood, 350 
Soy, 418 
Spanish elm, 308 
Spathulum, 399 
Spearmint, 273 
Spearwort, 519 
Spelt, 120 

Spiderwort family, 151 
Spikenard, 343 
Spinach family, 234 
Spindle tree family, 433 
Sponge gourd, 382 
Spruce beer, 1 95 

„ fir, 195 
Spurge laurel, 243 
Spurgewort family, 254 
Spurrey, 500 
Squill, 156 

Squirting cucumber, 381 
Stackhousiacese, 439 
Staphyleacese, 434 
Star apple family, 314 

„ jelly, 94 

„ of Bethlehem, 155 

,, of the earth, 299 

,, aniseed, 514 
Starch, 302 
Stilaginacese, 232 
Stilbaceaa, 278 
Stinging bush, 256 
St. John's bread, 422 
„ wort, 483 
St. Helena ebony, 486 
Stink wood, 250 
Storax gum, 322 
Stramonium, 305 
Strasburg turpentine, 195 
Strawberry, 410 

„ blite, 236 
,, tree, 325 
Strychnaceae, 310 



Strychnine, 310 
Stylidiaceaj, 342 
Styracese, 322 
Succory, 346 
Sugar cane, 123 

,, maple, 474 
Sumach, 466 
Sumatra camphor, 476 
Sundew family, 442 
Sunflower, 346 
Supple jacks, 473 
Swallow nest (Indian), 96 
,, wort family, 292 
Sweet briar, 409 

„ cane, 123 

„ flag, 528 

,, gale, 215 

,, pota.to, 294 

,, William, 499 
Sycamore fig tree, 227 
Syrian rose, 493 



TACCACEiE, 137 
Taccad family, 137 
Talipot palm, 140 
Tallow tree, 258, 481 
Tamarind tree, 422 
Tamaricacese, 443 
Tamarisk family, 443 
Tangle, 96 
Tapioca, 255 
Tar, 193, 194 
Tare, 419 
Taro, 135 
Tarragon, 349 
Tartarian lamb, 115 
Taxaceee, 202 
Tea, 473, 523 
Tea tree family, 477 
Teak tree, 277 
Teazel family, 343 
Telegraph plant, 425 
Ten-week stock, 505 
Terebinthacese, 463 
Terebinth family, 463 

,, galls, 465 
Ternstromiacese, 477 
Tetragoniacese, 399 
Thallogens, 92 
Theine, 473, 478 
Thistle family, 345 

N N 



546 



TJ^DEX OF FAMILIES OF PLANTS, FTC. 



Thora, 305 

apple, 305 

Thrift, 299 

Thyme, 274 

Thymelaceae, 243 

Ti, 161 

Til, 250 

Tiliaceae, 483 

Tobacco, 306 

Toddy palm, 145 

Toilet brushes, 125 

Tomato, 304 

Tonga, 305 

ToDquin bean, 429 

Tooma wood, 467 

Toothache tree, 454 

Tooth wort, 283 

Torch thistle, 389 

Tormentil, 411 

Tortoise plant, 166 

Touch me not, 494 

Tous les mois, 174 

Tragacanth gum, 422 

Travellers' tree, 176 

Treacle, 123 

Trebizond dates, 243 

Tree hair, 106 

Trefoil, 419 

Tree mallow, 493 

rape family, 209 
of knowledge, 292 

Tremandraceae, 445 

Trilliacese, 165 

Tripe de roche, 105 

Triuridacese, 185 

Tropseolaceae, 493 

Truffle, 100 

Trumpet- flower family, 2S7 
lily, 136 
,, seaweed, 97 

Tuberose, 157 

Tulip, 156 
„ tree, 512 
„ wood, 439, 473 

Tupelo tree, 396 

Turk's cap, 391 

Turmeric, 171 

Turnip, 502 

Turneracese, 400 

Turnsole 263, 308 

Turpentine, 194 

Tussac grass, 125 

Tutsan family, 482 



Tutu shrub, 459 
Typhacese, 128 



ULMACE^, 232 
Umbel family, 355 
TJmbelliferae, 355 
Umbra tree, 239 
Upas tree, 225 
Urticacese, 229 



VACCINACE^, 328 
Valerianaceae, 342 
Valerian family, 342 
Vallisneria, 133 
Valonia, 218 
Vanilla, 183 
Vegetable hair, 115 

,, marrow, 380 
Venus' fly-trap, 442 
Verbenaceae, 276 
Verbena family, 276 
Vermicelli, 119 
Vervain, 276 
Vetch, 419 
Victoria lily, 525 
Vine family, 510 
,, of Sodom, 381 
,, rape family, 207 
Violacese, 445 
Violet family, 445 
Viper's bugloss, 301 
Viper gourd, 381 
Virgin's bower, 520 
Virginian allspice family, 404 

,, creeper, 511 
Vitaceae, 510 
Vivianiaceae, 444 
Vochyaceae, 470 



WAKE robin, 135 
Wall-flower, 505 
Walnut family, 221 
Waratah, 253 
Water bean family, 526 
„ celery, 519 
„ chestnut family, 384 
,, chickweed, 501 
,, cress, 503 
,, dropwort, 360 
„ hemlock, 360 



INDEX OF FAMILIES OF PLANTS, ETC. 



54.7 



Water lemon, 402 

lily family, 524 
liverwort family, 270 
„ melon, 380 
parsnip, 360 
plantain family, 132 
shield family, 527 
,, soldier, 133 

starwort family, 271 
tree of Africa, 516 
„ violet, 297 
worts, 500 
Wattles, 423 
Wax, Japan, 321 
„ palm, 143, 149 
„ tree, 321 
Waxwork shrub, 433 
Weeping -willow, 212 
Weld, 507 

Welwitschia mir^bilis, 204 
West Indian fig family, 482 
Wheat, 119 
Whisky, 121 
White beam tree, 406 
hellebore, 153 

,, poplar, 213 
Whortleberry, 329 
Wild gourd, 381 
Willow family, 211 

„ herb, 385 
Winter-bark, 513 

„ cherry, 304 

„ green family, 326 
„ oil, 326 
Wine palm, 145 
Wistaria, 432 
Witch hazel family, 366 



Woad, 504 
Wolfsbane, 517 
Wood aloe family, 244 

,, bine family, 335 

„ oil, 476 
sorrel, 496 

,, vinegar, 194 
Wooden pear, 253 
Woodruff, 339 
Worm grass, 310 
Wormwood, 350 
Wourali poison, 311 
Wrack, 96 



XANTHOXYLACEA, 453 
Xyridacese, 128 



YACCA, 203 
Yam family, 165 
Yangmae, 215 
Yeast, 104 
Yellow root, 520 

„ family, 453 
,, wood, Queensland, 468 
Yerba, 314 
Yew family, 202 
Youlam, 513 



ZAMANG, 428 
Zebra poison, 257 
,, wood family, 466 
Zelkona tree, 233 
Zingiberacese, 171 
ZygophyllaceaB, 454 



THE END. 



LONDON : 

SAVILL, EDWAKDS AND CO., PRINTERS, CHANDOS STREET, 
COVENT GARDEN, 



ILLUSTRATED EDITION 

OP 

Bentham's Handbook of the British Flora. 



Now ready ^ in 2 vols. 8yo, loitJi 1295 Wood-JEngravings, 
Price £3. 10^. 

HANDBOOK OE THE BEITISH ELOEA, Hlustrated Edition; 
a Description (with a Wood-Engraving, including dissections, of each species) 
of the Flowering Plants and Fei-ns indigenous to, or naturalized in, the British 
Isles. By Geoege Bentham, F.E..S., President of the Linnean Society, 
2 vols. 8vo, 1295 Wood-Engravings, from Original Drawings, made expressly 
for the work, by W. Fitch. 



L. Eeeye a]S"d Co., 5, Henrietta Street, Covent G-a^rden. 



LIST OP WOEKS 



PUBLISHED BY L. REEVE & €0. 

L. REEVE AND CO.^S NEW SERIES OF NATURAL 
HISTORY FOR BEGINNERS. 



A good introductory series of books on Natural Histoiy lor tHe ' use of 
students and amateurs is still a desideratum. Those at present' in- lise have 
been too much compiled from antiquated" sources r^hilc the "tignTes,- ^copied 
in many instances from sources equally antiquated, are far from accttralte, the 
colouring of them having become degenerated through the adoption, for the 
sake of cheapness, of mechanical processes. 

The present series will be entirely the result of original research carried to its 
most advanced point ; and the figures, which will be chiefly engraved on steel, by 
the artist most highly renowned in each department for his technical knowledge 
of the subjects, wall in all cases be drawn from actual specimens, and coloured 
separately by hand. 

Each work will treat of a department of Natural History sufficiently limited 
in extent to admit of a satisfactory degree of completeness. 



The following are now ready:— 

BRITISH INSECTS ; a Tamiliar Description of the Form, 

Structure, Habits, and Transformations of Insects. By E. F. Staveley. 
Crown 8vo, 16 Coloured Steel Plates, engraved fi'om Natural Specimens 
expressly for the work by E. W. Robinson, and numerous Wood- 
Engravings by E. C. Rye, 14^. 



BRITISH BUTTEHFLIES AND MOTHS ; an Iritroduc- 

tion to the study of our Native Lepidoptera. By^ H. T: ^t'Al:NTON. 
Crown 8vo, 16 Coloured Steel Plates, containing Figures of 100 Species, 
engraved from Natural Specimens expressly for the work by E. W. Robin- 
son, and Wood-Engravings, IO5. Qd. 



6 



L. REETE- AND- CO.'S PUBtTC ATIONS? 



BEITISH WILD ELOWERS, Eamiliarlj Described in the 

Four Seasons. A New Edition of 'The Field Botanist's Companion.' By 
Thomas Moore, F.L.S. One volume, Demy 8vo, 424 pp. With 
24 Coloured Plates, by W. Fitch, i6-y. 

An elegantly-illustrated volume, intended for Beginners, describing the plants 
most- r"ea(tily- gathered in our' fields and hedgerows, with the progress of the sea- 
st)n&. " Dissections of vhe parts of the flowers are introduced among the Figures, 
so that an insight may be readily obtained not only of the Species and name of 
eac)i plant, but of its structure and characters of classification. 



MmM--QRASSES; .a4i Introduction to the Study of the 

'• '-Gyaimn€S& of Grreat- Britain and Ireland. By M. Plues. Crown 8vo, 100 
■ - Woad^Bngi-aviiigs, 6*. ; with 16 Coloured i^lates by W. Fitch, 10*. 6d. 
" Gne/of t-te'-' New Series" of Natural History,' accurately describing all the 
Grasses' found i> the 'Bri introductory chapters on the Structure, 

Cuflivatidri," UseSi etc. A Wood-Eugraving, including dissections, illustrates 
each^'Specie's';' the Plates contain Coloured figures of 43 Species. 



CURTIS^S BOTAOTCIL MAGAZINE, comprising New and 

Rare Plants from the Royal Gardens of Kew, and other Botanical Establish- 
. nients. By Dr..- J. *D. Hookkji, P.tl.S., Director of the Royal Gardens. 
_ Roy^l 8 v^. . .Piiblished Monthly, with 6 Plates, 3*. 6d. coloured. Vol. XXVI. 
, of tKe. Third Series (being Vol. XCVI. of the entire work) now ready, with 
a. new .General Index of the 26 volumes, 43*. The Index separately, 
l,y. A complete set of the Third Series may be had ; also a copy of 
the Second Series, 18 years' issue in 17 vols., new, in cloth. 
Descriptions and Drawings, beautifully coloured by hand, of newly-discovered 
plants suitable for cultivation in the Garden, Hothouse, or Conservatory. 



THE FLOEAL MAGAZINE, containing Figures and De- 

scriptions of New Popular Garden Flowers. By the Rev. H. Honywood 
DoMBRAiN, A.B. Imperial Svo. Published Monthly, with 4 Plates, 2^. 6d, 
coloured. Vols. I. to Y., each, with 64 coloured plates, £2. 2s. Vols. VL 
to IX., 48 coloured plates, 31s. <dd. each. 
Descriptions and Drawings, beautifully coloured by hand, of new varieties of 

Flowers raised by the nurserymen for cultivation in the Garden, Hothouse, or 

Conservatory. 



OUTLINES OF ELEMENTARY BOTANY, as Intro- 

ductory to Local Floras. By George Bentham, F.R.S., President of the 
Linnean Society. Demy Svo, pp. 45, 2s. 6d. 



LAWS OF BOTANICAL NOMENCLATURE adopted by 

the luternatioual Botanical Congress, with an Historical Introduction and 
a Commentary. By Alphonse de Candolle. 2.v. 6d. 



L. REEVE AND CO.'s PUBLICATIONS. 



7 



A SECOND CENTURY OF ORCHIDACEOUS PLANTS, 

selected from the subjects published in Curtis's ' Botanical Magazine ' since 
the issue of the ' First Century.' Edited by James Bateman, Esq., F.R.S. 
Complete in 1 Vol., royal 4to, 100 Coloured Plates, £5. 5^. 
During the fifteen years that have elapsed since the publication of the ' Cen- 
tury of Orchidaceous Plants,' now out of print, the ' Botanical Magazine ' has 
been the means of introducing to the public nearly two hundred of this favourite 
tribe of plants not hitherto described and figured, or very imperfectly so. This 
volume contains a selection of 100 of the most beautiful and best adapted for 
cultivation. The descriptions are revised and in many cases re-written, agreeably 
with the present more advanced state of our knowledge and experience in the 
cultivation of Orchidaceous plants, by Mr. Bateman, the acknowledged successor 
of Dr. Lindley as the leading authority in this department of botany and hor- 
ticulture. 



MONOGRAPH OE ODONTOGLOSSUM, a Genus of the 

Vandeous Section of Orchidaceous Plants, By James Bateman, Esq., 
r.R.S= Imperial folio. Parts I. to IV., each with 5 Coloured Plates, and 
occasional "Wood Engravings, 21^. 

Designed for the illustration, on an unusually magnificent scale, of the new 
and beautiful plants of this favoured genus of Orchidacece, which are being now 
imported from the mountain-chains of Mexico, Central America, New Granada, 
and Peru. 



SELECT ORCHIDACEOUS PLANTS. By Robert War- 

neu, F.R.H.S. With Notes on Culture by B. S. Williams. In Ten 
Parts, folio, each, with 4 Coloured Plates, \2s.^d.\ or, complete in one 
vol., cloth gilt, £6. 6 J. 

Second Series, Parts I. to VII., each, with 3 Coloured Plates, 10*. ^d. 



THE RHODODENDRONS OE SIKKIM-HIMALAYA ; 

being an Account, Botanical and Geographical, of the Rhododendrons re- 
cently discovered in the Mountains of Eastern Himalaya from Drawings 
and Descriptions made on the spot, by Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S. By Sir 
W. J. Hooker, F.R.S. Folio, 30 Coloured Plates, £4. 14s. M. 
Illustrations on a superb scale of the new Sikkim Rhododendrons, now being 

cultivated in England, accompanied by copious observations on their distribution 

and habits. 



THE TOURISrS ELORA ; a Descriptive Catalogue of the 

Flowering Plants and Ferns of the British Islands, France, Germany, 
Switzerland, Italy, and the Italian Islands. By Joseph Woods, F.L.S. 
Demy 8vo, 504 pp., 18s. 
Designed to enable the lover of botany to determine the names of any wild 
plants he may meet with while journeying in our own country and the countries 
of the Continent most frequented by tourists. The author's aim has been to 
make the descriptions clear and distinct, and to comprise them within a volume 
of not inconvenient bulk. 



8 



L. REEVE AND CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 



GENERA PLAStARliM, ad Exemplaria imprimis in Her- 

■' V' bariis Kewen'sibus servata diefinita. By George Bentham, F.R.S., Pre- 
'•• sident of the Linneau Society, and Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S., Director 
of the Roval Gardens, Kew. Vol. I. Part I. pp. 454. Royal 8vo, 21^. 
Part II., 14;?.- ; Part III.,- 15s. ; or Vol. I. complete, 50s. 
.This important work comprehends an entire revision and reconstruction of the 
Genera of Plants. Unlike the famous ' Genera Plantarum ' of Endlicher, which 
is now out of print, it is founded on a personal study of every genus by one or 
both authors. 'Ihc First Vol. contains 82 Natural Orders and 2544 Genera. 



FLORA VITIENSIS; a Description of the Plants of tlie 

Viti or Fiji Islands, with an Account of their History, Uses, and Pro- 
perties. By Dr. Berthold Seemann, F.L.S. Royal 4to, Parts I. to IX. 
each, 10 Coloured Plates, 15. To be completed in 10 Parts. 

This work owes its origin to the Government Mission to Viti, to which the 
author was attached as naturalist. In addition to the specimens collected, the 
author has investigated all the Polynesian collections of Plants brought to this 
country by various botanical explorers since the voyage of Captain Cook. 



FLORA OF THE ANTARCTIC ISLANDS. By Dr. 

J. D. Hooker, F.R.S. Royal 4to, 2 vols., 574 pp., 200 Plates, £10. 15*. 
coloured. Published under the authority of the Lords Commissioners of 
the Admiralty. 

The ' Flora Antarctica' illustrates the Botany of the southern districts of South 
America and the various Antarctic Islands, as the Falklands, Kerguelen's Land, 
Lord Auckland and Campbell's Island, and 1370 species are enumerated and 
described. The plates, beautifully coloured, illustrate 370 species, including a 
vast number of exquisite forms of Mosses and Seaweeds. 



FLORA OF TASMANIA. By Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S. 

Royal 4to, 2 vols., 972 pp., 200 Plates, £17. 10*., coloured. Published 
under the authority of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty. 

The 'Flora of Tasmania' describes all the Plants, flowering and flowerless, of 
that Island, consisting of 2203 Species, collected by the Author and others. 
The Plates, of which there are 200, illustrate 412 Species. 



ON THE FLORA OF AUSTRALIA, its Origin, Affini- 

ties, and Distribution; being an Introductory Essay to the 'Flora of Tas- 
mania.' By Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S. 128 pp., quarto, 10*. 



FLORA OF THE BRITISH WEST INDIAN ISLANDS. 

By Dr. Grisebach, F.L.S. Demy 8vo, 806 pp., 37*. Qd. Published 
under the auspices of the Secretary of State for the Colonies. 

Containing complete systematic descriptions of the Flowering Plants and 
Ferns of the British West Indian Islands, accompanied by an elaborate index of 
reference, and a list of Colonial names. 



L. REEVE AND CO.'s PUBLICATIONS. 



9 



FLORA OF TROPICAL AFRICA. By Daniel Oliver, 

F.R.S., r.L.S. Vols. I. and II., 20^. each. Published under the authority 
of the First Commissioner of Her Majesty's Works. 

This important and much-needed work embodies the researches of a long list 
of explorers, the results of whose labours have been accumulating at the Royal 
Gardens, Kew, and other museums, for many years past. The present volume 
contains the Orders Ranuncidacece to Connaracece. 



HANDBOOK OF THE NEW ZEALAND FLORA; a 

Systematic Description of the Native Plants of New Zealand, and the Chat- 
ham, Kermadec's, Lord Auckland's, Campbell's, and Macquarrie's Islands. 
By Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S. Demy 8vo. Part I., 16*. ; Part II., 14.s. ; 
or complete in one vol., SOi. Published under the auspices of the Govern- 
ment of that colony. 

A compendious account of the plants of New Zealand and outlying islands, 
published under the authority of the Government of that colony. The first 
Part contains the Flowering Plants, Ferns, and I^ycopods ; the Second the re- 
maining Orders of Cri/jdogamia, or Flowerless Plants, with Index and Cata- 
logues of Native Names and of Naturalized Plants. 



FLORA AUSTRALIENSIS; a Description of the Plants of 

the Australian Territory. By George Bentham, F.R.S. , President of the 
Linnean Society, assisted by Ferdinand Mueller, F.R.S., Government 
Botanist, Melbourne, Victoria. Demy 8vo. Vols. I. to V., 20*. each. Pub- 
lished under the auspices of the several Governments of Australia. 

The materials for this great undertaking, the present volumes of which contain 
three thousand closely-printed pages, are derived not only from the vast collec- 
tions of Australian plants brought to this country by various botanical travel- 
lers, and preserved in the herbaria of Kew and of the British Museum, includ- 
in!j those hitherto unpublished of Banks and Solander, of Captain Cook's first 
Voyage, and of Brown in Flinders', but- from the very extensive and more re- 
cently collected specimens preserved in the Government Herbarium of Mel- 
bourne, under the superintendence of Dr. Ferdinand Mueller. The descriptions 
are written in plain English, and are masterpieces of accuracy and clearness. 



FLORA HONGKONGENSIS; a Description of the Flow- 

ering Plants and Ferns of the Island of Hongkong. By George Ben- 
tham, P.L.S. With a Map of the Island. Demy 8vo, 550 pp., 16^. 
Published under the authority of Her Majesty's Secretary of State for the 
Colonies. 

The Island of Hongkong, though occupying an area of scarcelv thirtv square 
miles, is characterized by an extraordinarily varied Flora, partaking, however, of 
that of South Continental China, of which comparatively little is known. The 
number of Species enumerated in the present volume is 1056, derived chiefly 
from materials collected by Mr. Hinds, Col. Champion, Dr. Hance, Dr. Harland, 
Mr. Wright, and Mr. Wilford. 



10 



L. REEVE AND CO/s PUBLICATIONS. 



CONTEIBUTIONS TO THE FLOEA OF MENTONE, 

AND TO A WINTER FLORA OF THE RIVIERA, INCLUDING 
THE COAST FROM MARSEILLES TO GENOA. By J. Traherne 
]\IoGGRiDGE. Royal 8vo. Parts I., IT., and III., each, with 25 Coloured 
Plates, 15^. 

In this work a full page is devoted to the illustration of each Species, the 
drawings being made by the author from specimens collected by him on the spot, 
and they exhibit in vivid colours the beautiful aspect which many of our wild 
flowers assume south of the Alps. 



ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE NUEVA QUINOLOGIA 

OF PATON, with Observations on the Barks described. By J. E. Hoavakd, 
F.L.S. With 27 (Coloured Plates by W. Fitch. Imperial folio, half- 
morocco, gilt edges, £6. 6^. 



THE QUINOLOGY OF THE EAST INDIAN PLANTA- 

TIONS. By J. E. Howard, F.L.S. Folio, 3 Coloured Plates, 21 j. 



REVISION OF THE NATURAL ORDER HEDERA- 

CEtE, being a reprint, with numerous additions and corrections, of a series 
ol papers published in the ' Journal of Botany, British and Foreign.' By 
Berthold Seemakn, Ph.D., F.L.S. 8vo, 7 Plates. 10s. 6d. . 



ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE GENUS CAREX. By 

Francis Boott, M.D. Part IV. FoHo, 189 Plates, £10. 



ICONES PLANTARUM. Figures, with brief Descriptive 

Characters and Remarks, of Ne\v and Rare Plants, selected from the 
Author's Herbarium. By Sir W. J. Hooker, F.R.S. New Series, Vol. V. 
Royal 8vo, 100 plates, 31*. 6d. 



FERNS. 



BRITISH FERNS; an Introduction to the study of the 

Ferns, Lycopods, and Equiseta indigenous to the British Isles. With 
Chapters on the Structure, Propagation, Cultivation, Diseases, Uses, Pre- 
servation, and Distribution of Ferns. By M. Plues. Crown Svo, 55 
Wood-Engravings, 6*. ; with 16 Coloured Plates by W. Fitch, 10*. 6d. 

One of the ' New Series of Natural History for Beginners,' accurately de- 
scribing all the Ferns and their allies found in Britain, with a Wood-Engraving 
of each Species, and Coloured Figures of 32 of the most interesting, including 
magnified dissections showing the Venation and Fructification. 



L. REEVE AND CO.'S PUBLICATIONS. 



11 



THE BRITISH PERNS; or, Coloured Figures and De- 

scriptions, with the needful Analyses of the Fructification and Venation, of 
the Ferns of Great Britain and Ireland, systematically arranged. By Sir 
W. J. Hooker, F.R.S. Royal 8vo, 66 Plates, £2. 2^. 
The British Ferns and their allies are illustrated in this work, from the 
pencil of Mr. Fitch. Each Species has a Plate to itself, so that there is ample 
room for the details, on a magnified scale, of Fructification and Venation. The 
whole are delicately coloured by hand. In the letterpress an interesting account 
is given with each species of its geographical distribution in other countries. 



GAEDEN EERNS ; or. Coloured Figures and Descriptions, 

with the needful Analyses of the Fructification and Venation, of a Selection 
of Exotic Ferns, adapted for Cultivation in the Garden, Hothouse, and Con- 
servatory. By Sir W. J. Hooker, F.R.S. Royal 8vo, 64 Plates, £2. 2*. 

A companion volume to the preceding, for the use of those who take an in- 
terest in the cultivation of some of the more beautiful and remarkable varieties 
of Exotic Ferns. Here also each Species has a Plate to itself, and the details of 
Fructification and Venation are given on a magnified scale, the Drawings being 
from the pencil of Mr. Fitch. 



FILICES EXOTIC.E; or, Coloured Figures and Description 

of Exotic Ferns, chiefly of such as are cultivated in the Royal Gardens of 
Kew. By Sir W. J. Hooker, F.R.S, Royal 4to, 100 Plates, £6. 11^. 

One of the most superbly illustrated books of Foreign Ferns that has been 
hitherto produced. The Species are selected both on account of their beauty of 
form, singular structure, and their suitableness for cultivation. 



FEENY COMBES; a Ramble after Ferns in the Glens and 

Valleys of Devonshire. By Charlotte Chanter. Third Edition, 
Fop. 8vo, 8 coloured plates by Fitch, and a Map of the County, 5jr. 



MOSSES. 



HANDBOOK OF BRITISH MOSSES, containing all that 

are known to be Natives of the British Isles. By the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, 
M.A., F.L.S. Demy 8vo, pp. 360, 24 Coloured Plates, 2l5. 

A very complete Manual, comprising characters of all the species, with the 
circumstances of habitation of each; with special chapters on development and 
structure, propagation, fructification, geographical distribution, uses, and modes 
of collecting and preserving, followed by an extensive series of coloured illustra- 
tions, in which the essential portions of the plant are repeated, in every case on 
a magnified scale. 



12 



L. REEVE AND CO.'s PUBLICATIONS. 



SEAWEEDS. 



BEITISH SEAWEEDS ; an Introduction to the Study of 

the Marine A.lg^ of Great Britain, Ireland, and the Channel Islands. By 
S. 0. Gray. Crown 8vo, 6s.; with 16 Coloured Plates, drawn expressly 
for the work by W. Fitch, 10s. 6c/, 

One of L. Reeve and Co.'s ' New Series,' briefly but accurately describing, 
according to the classification of the best and most recent authorities, all the 
Algge found on our coasts. 



PHYCOLOGIA BEITANNICA; or. History of British 

Seaweeds, containing Coloured Figures, Generic and Specific Characters, 
Synonyms and Descriptions of all the Species of Ala:?e inhabitinsj; the 
Shores of the British Islands. By Dr. W. H. Harvey, F.R.S. lloyal 
8vo, 4 vols., 765 pp., 360 Coloured Plates, £?. 10^. 

This work, originally published in 1851, is still the standard work on the 
subject of which it treats. Each Species, excepting the minute ones, has a 
Plate to itself, with magnified portions of structure and fructification, the whole 
being printed in their natural colours, finished by hand. 



PHYCOLOGIA AUSTEALICA; a History of Australian 

Seaweeds, coraprisiug Coloured Figures and Descriptions of the more cha- 
racteristic Marine Algae of New South Wales, Victoria, Tasmania, South 
Australia and Western Australia, and a Svnopsis of all known Anstrahan 
Algse. By Dr. Harvey, F.R.S. Royal 'Svo, 5 vols., 300 Colom-ed Plates, 
£7. 13^. 

This beautiful work, the result of an arduous personal exploration of the 
shores of the Australian continent, is got up in the style of the ' Phycologia 
Britannica' by the same author. Each Species has a Plate to itself, with ample 
magnified delineations of fructification and structure, embodying a variety of 
most curious and remarkable forms. 



NEEEIS AUSTRALIS; or, Algee of the Southern Ocean, 

being Figures and Descriptions of Marine Plants collected on the Shores 
of the Cape of Good Hope, the extratropical Australian Colonies, Tas- 
mania, New Zealand, and the Antarctic Regions. By Dr. Harvey, F.R.S. 
Imperial Svo, 50 Coloured Plates, £2. 2^. 

A selection of Fifty Species of remarkable forms of Seaweed, not included in 
the ' Phycologia Australica,' collected over a wider area. 



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CHEMISTRY, TRAVELS, ANTIQUITIES, 

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And so complete, but only he that owes them." 

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CONTENTS. 



PAGE 



KEW SERIES OF NATUUAL HISTORY 3 

BOTANY ... ... ... ... ... 5 

FERNS ... ... ... ... 10 

MOSSES ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 11 

SEAWEEDS ... ... ... ... 12 

FUNGI ... ... 13 

SHELLS AND MOLLUSKS ... ... ... ... 14 

INSECTS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 16 

ANTIQUARIAN 18 

MISCELLANEOUS ... ... ... ... ... 20 

SERIALS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 23 

RECENTLY PUBLISHED ... ... ... 23 

FORTHCOMING WORKS 24 



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13 



FUNGI. 



OUTLINES OF BRITISH FUNGOLOGY, containing 

Characters of above a Thousaad Species of I'ungi, and a Complete List of 
all that have been described as Natives of the British Jsles. By the Rev. 
M. J. Berkeley, M.A., F.L.S. Demy Svo, 484 pp., 24 Coloured Plates, 
30^. 

Although entitled simply 'Outlines,' this is a good-sized volume, of nearly 500 
pages, illustrated with more than 200 Figures of British Fungi, all carefully 
coloured by hand. Of above a thousand Species the characters are given, and 
a complete list of the names of all the rest. 



THE ESCULENT EUNGUSES OF ENGLAND.. Con- 

taining an Account of their Classical History, Uses, Characters, Develop- 
ment, Structure, Nutritious Properties, Modes of Cooking and Preserving, 
etc. Bv C. D. Badham, M.D. Second Edition. Edited by F. Currey, 
F.R.S. Demy 8vo, 152 pp., 12 Coloured Plates, 12^. 

A lively classical treatise, written with considerable epigrammatic huraoiir, 
with the view of showing that we have upwards of 30 Species of Fungi abounding 
in our woods capable of affording nutritious and savoury food, but which, from 
ignorance or prejudice, are left to perish ungathered. " I have indeed grieved," 
says the Author, " when reflecting on the straitened condition of the lower 
orders, to see pounds of extempore beefsteaks growing on our oaks, in the shape 
of Fistulina hepatica; Puff-balls, which some have not inaptly compared to 
sweetbread ; Hi/dna, as good as oysters ; and Agaricus deliciosus, reminding us of 
tender lamb-kidney." Superior coloured Figures of the Species are given from 
the pencil of Mr. Fitch. 



ILLUSTRATIONS OF BRITISH MYCOLOGY, com- 

prising Figures and Descriptions of the Funguses of interest and novelty 
indigenous to Britain. By Mrs. T, J. Hussey. Royal 4to ; First Series, 
90 Coloured Plates, £?. 'i2^. Gaf. ; Second Series, 50 Coloured Plates, 
£4. 10^. 

This beautifully-illustrated work is the production of a lady who, being an 
accomplished artist, occupied the leisure of many years in accumulating a port- 
folio of exquisite drawings of the more attractive forms and varieties of British 
Fungi. The publication was brought to an end with the 140th Plate by her 
sudden decease. The Figures are mostly of the natural size, carefully coloured 
by hand. 



CLAYIS AGARICmORUM : an Analytical Key to the 

British Agaricini, with Characters of the Genera and Subgenera, By 
WoRTHiNGTON G. Smith, F.L.S. Six Plates. 2s. %d. 



14 



L. REEVE AND CO.'s PUBLICATIONS. 



SHELLS AND MOLLUSKS. 

ELEMENTS OF CONCHOLOGY; an Introduction to the 

Natural History of Shells, and of the Animals which form them. By 
LovELL Reeve, F.L.S. Roval 8vo, 2 vols., 478 pp., 62 Coloured Plates, 
£2. 16^. 

Intended as a guide to the collector of shells in arranging and naming his 
specimens, while at the same time inducing hiui to study them with reference 
to their once living existence, geographical distribution, and habits. Forty - 
six of the plates are devoted to the illustration of the genera of shells, and 
sixteen to shells with the living animal, all beautifully coloured by hand. 



CONCHOLOGIA ICONICA ; or, Figures and Descriptions 

of the Shells of IMollusks, with remarks on their Affinities, Synonymy, and 
Geographical Distribution. By Lovei.l Reeve, F.L.S. Demy 4to, pub- 
lished monthly in Parts, 8 Plates, carefully coloured by hand, 10^. 
Of this work, comprising illustrations of Shells of the natural size, nearly 
2300 Plates are published, but the plan of publication admits of the collector 
purchasing it at his option in portions, each of which is complete in itself. Each 
genus, as the work progresses, is issued separately, with Title and Index ; and an 
Alphabetical List of the published genera, with the prices annexed, may be pro- 
cured of the publishers on application. The system of nomenclature adopted 
is that of Lamarck, modified to meet the exigencies of later discoveries. With 
the name of each species is given a summary of its leading specific characters 
in Latin and English ; then the authority for the name is quoted, accompanied 
by a reference to its original description ; and next in order are its Synonyms. 
The habitat of the species is next given, accompanied, where possible, by par- 
ticulars of soil, depth, or vegetation. Finally, a few general remarks are offered, 
calling attention to the most obvious distinguishing peculiarities of the species, 
with criticisms, when necessary, on the views of other writers. At the com- 
mencement of the genus some notice is taken of the animal, and the habitats 
of the species are worked up into a general summary of the geographical distri- 
bution of the genus. 



CONCHOLOGIA ICONICA IN MONOGRAPHS. 



Genera. 


Plates. 


£. «. 


d. 


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£. ». 


rf. 




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8 







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psammotella 1 1 

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eostellaria 3 4 

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scarabus 3 4 

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SiPHONARIA 7 9 

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soletellina 4 5 

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Strombus 19 .1 4 

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(724) 779-2111 





LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 

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